Noise Characteristics Noise Matching 2007 45

LECTURE 7.
Contents 1
5. Sources of errors
5.1. Impedance matching
5.4.1. Non-energetic matching
5.4.2. Energetic matching
5.4.3. Non-reflective matching
5.4.4. To match or not to match?
5.2. Basic noise types
5.2.1. Thermal noise
5.2.2. Shot noise
5.2.3. 1/f noise
5.3. Noise characteristics
5.3.1. Signal-to-noise ratio, SNR
5.3.2. Noise factor, F, and noise figure, NF
5.3.3. Calculating SNR and input noise voltage from NF
5.3.4. VnIn noise model
5.4. Noise matching
5.4.1. Optimum source resistance
5.4.2. Methods for the increasing of SNR
5.4.3. SNR of cascaded noisy amplifiers
5. SOURCES OF ERRORS. 5.3. Noise characteristics. 5.3.1. Signal-to-noise ratio, SNR 2
5.3. Noise characteristics

5.3.1. Signal-to-noise ratio, SNR
The signal-to-noise ratio is the measure for the extent to which
a signal can be distinguished from the background noise:
S
SNR 
N
where S is the signal power, and N is the noise power.
Reference: [4]
A. Signal-to-noise ratio at the input of the system, SNRin
It is usually assumed that the signal power, Sin, and the noise
power, Nin, are dissipated in the noiseless input impedance of
the measurement system.
Measurement object Measurement system
ZS=RS + jXS SNRin Noiseless
vS
Zin=Rin + jXin RL
Sin
SNRin 
Nin
Example: Calculation of SNRin
ZS=RS + jXS SNRin Noiseless
vS
Zin=Rin + jXin RL
VS 2 Zin Vn 2 Zin
,Sin  (1 ,Nin  (2
2
(ZS + Zin) 2
(ZS + Zin)
VS 2 VS 2
SNRin  (3 
Vn 2 k T RS N 4
Note that SNRin is not a function of Zin.

B. Signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the system, SNRo
1) The measurement system is noiseless.
ZS=RS + jXS SNRin Noiseless SNRo src

vS Power gain, Ap
RL
So Sin Ap Sin
SNRo src   
No src Nin Ap Nin
SNRo src SNRin

2) The measurement system is noisy.
ZS=RS + jXS SNRin Noisy SNRo

vS Power gain, Ap
RL
So Sin Ap Sin
SNRo   
No Ap (Nin+Nin msr) Nin
SNRo SNRin
5. SOURCES OF ERRORS. 5.3. Noise characteristics. 5.3.2. Noise factor, F, and noise figure, NF 7
5.3.2. Noise factor, F, and noise figure, NF
Noise factor is used to evaluate the signal-to-noise degradation

caused by the measurement system (H. T. Friis, 1944).

vS Power gain, Ap
RL
SNRin
F
SNRo
The signal-to-noise degradation is due to the additional noise,

No msr , which the measurement system contributes to the load.

vS Power gain, Ap
RL
SNRin SNRo src So /No src No

F   
 
SNRo SNRo  So /No  No src
No src + No msr No msr




No src No src 
Example: Calculation of noise factor

Here and below, we assume that the reactance in the source
output impedance is compensated by the properly chosen input
impedance of the measurement system (noise tuning).
RS vin vo
enS GV Voltage gain, AV
RL
No Vno2/RL
F  
No src kTRS NB )GV AV(2 /RL 4
Vno2

kTRS NB )GV AV(2 4
Conclusions:
Vno2
F 
kTRS B )G AV(2 4
The following three characteristics of noise factor can be seen

by examining the obtained equation:
1. It is independent of the load resistance RL,
2. It does depend on the source resistance RS,

3. If the measurement system was completely noiseless,
the noise factor would equal one.
Reference: [2]
C. Noise figure
Noise factor expressed in decibels is called noise figure )NF(:
NF 10 log F
Due to the bandwidth term in the denominator
Vno2
F 
kTRS NB )G AV(2 4
there are two ways to specify the noise factor: (1) a spot noise,
measured at specified frequency over a 1Hz bandwidth, or (2)
an integrated, or average noise measured over a specified
bandwidth.
Reference: [2]
E. Measurement of noise factor
We will consider the following methods for the measurement of

noise factor: (1) the single-frequency method, and (2) the white
noise method.
1) Single-frequency method. According to this method, a
sinusoidal test signal vS is increased until the output power
doubles. Under this condition the following equation is satisfied:
RS vin vo
vS Gv Voltage gain, Av
RL
Reference: [2]
RS vin vo
vS GV Voltage gain, AV
RL
2
+ Vno2  2 Vno2(VS GV AV) (1
VS  0 VS  0
Vno2  )VS GV AV(2 (2

VS  0
Vno2
VS  0
2
(VS GV AV) VS2
F  (3  
No src kTRS NB )GV AV(2 4 k T RS NB 4
Reference: [2]
VS 2
F 
k T RS NB 4
The disadvantage of the single-frequency method is that the

noise bandwidth of the measurement system must be known.
A better method of measuring noise factor is to use a white

noise source.
2) White noise method. This method is similar to the previous

one. The only difference is that the sinusoidal signal generator
is now replaced with a white noise source:
Reference: [2]
RS vin vo
in ) f ( GR Voltage gain, Av
RL
2
NB + Vno2  2 Vno2(in RS GR AV) (1
in  0 in  0
Vno2  )in RS GR AV(2 B (2

in  0
Vno2
in  0
2
NB(in RS GR AV) in2 RS
F  (3  
No src kTRS NB )GR AV(2 4 k T4
in2 RS
F 
k T4
The noise factor is now a function of only the test noise signal,
the value of the source resistance, and temperature. All of these
quantities are easily measured.
The noise bandwidth of the measurement system should not be

known.
The standard reference temperature is T0 = 290 K for that

k T0= 4.001021. (H. T. Friis: NF, Pa, and T0.)
5. SOURCES OF ERRORS. 5.3. Noise characteristics. 5.3.3. VnIn noise model 17
5.3.3. VnIn noise model

The actual network can be modeled as a noise-free network
with two noise generators, en and in, connected to its input
(Rothe and Dahlke, 1956):
RS en
vo
Noiseless
vS
in Rin AV RL
In a general case, the en and in noise generators are correlated.
Reference: [2]
RS en
vo
Noiseless
vS
in Rin AV RL
The en source represents the network noise that exists when RS

equals zero, and the in source represents the additional noise
that occurs when RS does not equal zero,
The use of these two noise generators plus a complex

correlation coefficient completely characterizes the noise
performance of a linear network.
Reference: [2]
Example: Input voltage and current noise spectra

(ultralow-noise, high-speed, BiFET op-amp AD745)
en
in
Reference: www.analog.com
A. Total input noise as a function of the source impedance
RS en
vo
Noiseless
vS
in Rin AV RL
The total equivalent noise voltage reflected to the source

location can easily be found if we apply the following
modifications to the input circuit:
RS en
vo
Noiseless
vS
in Rin AV RL
RS en
vo
Noiseless
vS
in Rs Rin AV RL
en at S =  4 kT RS + en 2 + 2 en in + )in RS(2
We now can connect an equivalent noise generator in series
with the input signal source to model the total input voltage of
the whole system.
We assume that the correlation coefficient in the previous

equation 0. (For the case 0, it is often simpler to
analyze the original circuit with its internal noise sources.)

en at S RS Noiseless vo
vS Voltage gain, AV
RL
en at S =  4 kT RS + en 2 + )in RS(2
Reference: [7]
B. Measurement of en and in
Measurement system
en
vn o
Noiseless
Rt = 0 4 kT Rt + )in Rt(2 0 (1
in Rin AV RL
en = v n o ) f ( / A V (2
Measurement system
2
>> 4 kT Rt + en2(in Rt) (1 en
vn o
Noiseless
in Rt  vn o) f ( / AV (2 Rt in Rin AV RL
in  [vn o) f ( / AV ] / Rt (3
5. SOURCES OF ERRORS. 5.4. Noise matching: maximization of SNR 24
5.4. Noise matching: maximizing SNR
The purpose of noise matching is to let the measurement

system add as little noise as possible to the measurand.

x x +
Matching
Measurement Measurement
Object System
Influence
5. SOURCES OF ERRORS. 5.4. Noise matching: maximization of SNR 25
Let us first find the noise factor F and the signal-to-noise ratio
SNRo of the measurement system as a function of the source
resistance: F = f ) RS ( and SNRo = f ) RS (.
No Nat S 4kTRS + en2 + )in RS(2


F N  
 f ) RS (
o src NR 4kTRS
S
VS 2 VS2
SNRo = SNRat S    f ) RS (
Nat S 4kTRS+ en + )in RS(
2 2
where, Nat S and SNRat S are the noise power and the signal-to-
noise ratio at the source location.
We then will try and maximize the SNRo at the output of the
measurement system by matching the source resistance.
5. SOURCES OF ERRORS. 5.4. Noise matching: maximization of SNR. 5.4.1. Optimum source resistance 26
5.4.1. Optimum source resistance
en = 2 nV/Hz0.5, in = 20 pA /Hz0.5
100
4kTRS + en2 + )in RS(2

F 
4kTRS RS max SNR
en at S , nV/Hz0.5
10 in RS
VS2
en
SNR 
4kTRS+ en2 + )in RS(2 vS = en1 Hz0.5
1 ment
re
asu noise  4kTRS
M e
y s t em Source
s RS min F
noise
en = in Rn  0.1
100 101 102 103 104
F 0.5, dB 20
en 10
= RS opt SNR 0.5, dB0
in
10-
RS opt is called 20-
30-
the optimum source resistance
).also noise resistance) 100 101 102 103 104
RS , 
27
5. SOURCES OF ERRORS. 5.4. Noise matching: maximization of SNR. 5.4.1. Optimum source resistance
F 0.5, dB 20
4kTRS + en2 + )in RS(2
10
F 
4kTRS SNR 0.5, dB0
10-
Vs2
20-
SNR 
4kTRS+ en2 + )in RS(2 30-
100 101 102 103 104
RS , 
It is important to note that the source resistance that maximizes

SNR is RS max SNR  0, whereas the source resistance that
minimizes F is RS min F  RS opt .
For a given RS, SNR cannot be increased by connecting a

resistor to RS.
28
Adding a series resistor, R, increases the total source

resistance up to RS opt = RS + R and (!) decreases SNR.
Measurement object
RS
vS
RS  RS opt
F 0.5, dB 20
4kTRS + en + )in RS(
2 2
10
F 
4kTRS SNR 0.5, dB0
10-
VS2
20-
SNR 
100 101 102 103 104
RS , 
29
Adding a series resistor, R, increases the total source

resistance up to RS opt = RS + R and (!) decreases SNR.
Measurement object
RS R+
vS
RS R RS opt
F 0.5, dB 20
4kTR4kTR
S opt +
S+e e ++)in)iRn SRoptS((
2 2
n n
22
10


F  F  4kTR
4kTRS Sopt SNR 0.5, dB0
10-
VSV
2 2
S
20-


SNR 4kTR

4kTRS+
S+eenn + )innRSS( 
22 + )i R (22
30-
100 101 102 103 104
RS , 
30
Adding a parallel resistor, R, decreases by the same factor both

the input signal and the source resistance seen by the
measurement network, and therefore (!) decreases SNR.
Measurement object
RS
vS
RS  RS opt
F 0.5, dB 20
4kTRS + en + )in RS(
2 2
10
F 
4kTRS SNR 0.5, dB0
10-
VS2
20-
SNR 
100 101 102 103 104
RS , 
31
Adding a parallel resistor, R, decreases by the same factor both

the input signal and the source resistance seen by the
measurement network, and therefore (!) decreases SNR.
Measurement object
RS
vS
R RS / [)RS  R(/R] RS opt
VS / [)RS  R(/R] VS
k  )RS  R(/R > 1
F 0.5, dB 20
4kTR4kTR
S opt +
S+e e ++)in)iRn SRoptS((
2 2
n n
22
10


F  F  4kTR
4kTRS Sopt SNR 0.5, dB0
10-
VSV
2 2
S k 2
20-


SNR 4kTR

4kTR 22 +2 )i R (2 2 k 2
S kS+ enn k +n)inSRS( 30-
100 101 102 103 104
RS , 
32
Conclusions.
The noise factor can be very misleading: the minimization of F

does not necessarily leads to the maximization of the SNR.
This is referred to as the noise factor fallacy (erroneous belief).

33
5. SOURCES OF ERRORS. 5.4. Low-noise design: noise matching. 5.4.2. Methods for the increasing of SNR
5.4.2. Methods for the increasing of SNR

Methods for the increasing of SNR are based on the following
relationship:
1
SNRo = SNRin
F
The strategy is simple: to increase SNRo, keep SNRin constant

while decreasing the noise figure:
1
 SNRo = SNRin
F
The SNR at the output will increase because the relative noise
power contributed by the measurement system will decrease.
34
A. Noise reduction with parallel input devices
This method is commonly used in low-noise OpAmps:

to increase the SNR, several active devices are connected
in-parallel:
Measurement system
en io sc
vin gm vin
in Rin ro
k
en
gm vin
in Rin ro
Reference: [7]
35
Home exercise: Prove that the following network is equivalent to the

previous one.
Equivalent measurement system
vin en/k 0.5 io sc

k gm vin
Rin ro
in k 0.5
k k
Reference: [7]
36
Thanks to parallel connection of input devices, it is possible to

decrease the ratio, (en / in (p (en / in (single / k , with no change in vS
and RS, and hence in the SNRin.
Measurement object Equivalent measurement system
RS vin en/k 0.5 io sc

k gm vin
vS Rin ro
in k 0.5
k k
en en / in
= SNRo = SNRo max and F = Fmin at RS  =k
k in RS
Note that SNRo cannot be improved if the RS is too large.
Reference: [7]
37
Home exercise: Prove that
SNRo p = k SNRo single at F min
Reference: [7]
38
B. Noise reduction with an input transformer

en
RS n :1vin vo
vS
in ARVin RL
n vS
n 2 RS
2
( n VS) SNRin
SNRin  , const F  
kT n2 RS 4 SNRo
1
. SNRo = SNRin
F
5. SOURCES OF ERRORS. 5.4. Low-noise design: noise matching. 5.4.2. Methods for the increasing of SNR 39
Example: Noise reduction with an ideal input transformer
B = 1 Hz, en = 2 nV/Hz0.5, in = 20 pA /Hz0.5

RS 100
n :1
vS
en at S , nV/Hz0.5
10 in Rs
en
RS n2 vS = en1 Hz0.5
vS n ent
1 m Source  4kTR B
re
asu noise
s
1 e noise
M
SNRo = SNRin y s t em
s RS for minimum F
F
0.1
F 100 101 102 103 104
SNRo )1: n( = SNRo F 0.5, dB F 0.5

Fmin 20 Fmin 0.5
10
SNR 0.5, dB0 SNRo )1: n(0.5
SNRo )1: n( = n2 SNRo F min 10- SNRo 0.5 SNRo )1: n(0.5
20-
RS opt SNRo F min0.5
=n 2 30-
RS
100 101 102 103 104
RS, 
40
To prove that
SNRo )1: n( = n2 SNRo F min
let us consider the following. At noise matching, the amplifier

sees Rs=Rn, thus the total noise at the amplifier output remains
the same: No )1:n( = No F min . The transformer, however, increases
the amplifier input voltage: vin )1:n( = n2 vin F min. Therefore:
vin )1:n(2 n2 vin F min2

SNRo )1: n(    n2 SNRo F min
No )1:n( No F min
5. SOURCES OF ERRORS. 5.4. Low-noise design: noise matching. 5.4.2. Methods for the increasing of SNR 41
B = 1 Hz, en = 2 nV/Hz0.5, in = 20 pA /Hz0.5

RS 100
n :1
vS
en at S , nV/Hz0.5
10 in Rs
en
RS n2 vS = en1 Hz0.5
vS n ent
1 m Source  4kTR B
re
asu noise
s
e noise
F M
s t em
SNRo )1: n( = SNRo sy RS for minimum F
Fmin
0.1
100 101 102 103 104
Note that: F 0.5, dB 20 F 0.5 Fmin 0.5

10
F2 SNR 0.5, dB0 F/Fmin n SNRo )1: n(0.5
n
Fmin 10- SNRo 0.5 SNRo )1: n(0.5
20-
SNRo F min0.5
30-
100 101 102 103 104
RS, 
42
Example: Noise reduction with a non-ideal input transformer
RS R1 R
n :1 2
vS
vS n
n2 + R2( RS + R1)
43
5. SOURCES OF ERRORS. 5.4. Low-noise design: noise matching. 5.4.3. SNR of cascaded noisy amplifiers
5.4.3. SNR of cascaded noisy amplifiers
Our aim in this section is to maximize the SNR of a three-stage

amplifier.
RS enS1 enS2 enS3

vO
AV 1 AV 2 AV 3
vS
Reference: [4]
44
5. SOURCES OF ERRORS. 5.4. Low-noise design: noise matching. 5.4.3. SNR of cascaded noisy amplifiers
RS enS1 enS2 enS3

vO
AV 1 AV 2 AV 3
vS
VS 2
SNRo SNRat S  (1
Vno2 /) AV12 AV22 AV32(
Vno 2 = [enS12 AV12 AV22 AV32 + enS22 AV22 AV32 + enS32 AV32 ] NB (2
VS 2 / NB
SNRo  (3
enS12 + enS22 /AV12 + enS32 /AV12 AV22
Conclusion: keep AV1 >> 1 to neglect the noise contribution of

the second and third stages.
Reference: [4]
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LECTURE 7.

5.3. Noise characteristics

where S is the signal power, and N is the noise power.

A. Signal-to-noise ratio at the input of the system, SNRin

Measurement object Measurement system

ZS=RS + jXS SNRin Noiseless

Example: Calculation of SNRin

Measurement object Measurement system

ZS=RS + jXS SNRin Noiseless

Note that SNRin is not a function of Zin.

B. Signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the system, SNRo

1) The measurement system is noiseless.

Measurement object Measurement system

ZS=RS + jXS SNRin Noiseless SNRo src

SNRo src SNRin

2) The measurement system is noisy.

Measurement object Measurement system

ZS=RS + jXS SNRin Noisy SNRo

5.3.2. Noise factor, F, and noise figure, NF

Noise factor is used to evaluate the signal-to-noise degradation

Measurement object Measurement system

ZS=RS + jXS SNRin Noisy SNRo

The signal-to-noise degradation is due to the additional noise,

Measurement object Measurement system

ZS=RS + jXS SNRin Noisy SNRo

SNRin SNRo src So /No src No

No src + No msr No msr

Example: Calculation of noise factor

Measurement object Measurement system

The following three characteristics of noise factor can be seen

1. It is independent of the load resistance RL,

2. It does depend on the source resistance RS,

Noise factor expressed in decibels is called noise figure )NF(:

Due to the bandwidth term in the denominator

E. Measurement of noise factor

We will consider the following methods for the measurement of

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Vno2  )VS GV AV(2 (2

The disadvantage of the single-frequency method is that the

A better method of measuring noise factor is to use a white

2) White noise method. This method is similar to the previous

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Vno2  )in RS GR AV(2 B (2

The noise bandwidth of the measurement system should not be

The standard reference temperature is T0 = 290 K for that

5.3.3. VnIn noise model

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In a general case, the en and in noise generators are correlated.

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The en source represents the network noise that exists when RS

The use of these two noise generators plus a complex

Example: Input voltage and current noise spectra

A. Total input noise as a function of the source impedance

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The total equivalent noise voltage reflected to the source

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We assume that the correlation coefficient in the previous

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5.4. Noise matching: maximizing SNR

The purpose of noise matching is to let the measurement

No Nat S 4kTRS + en2 + )in RS(2

4kTRS + en2 + )in RS(2