003-How Phased Arrays Work

How Phased Arrays Work
info@rd-tech.com • www.rd-tech.com
Phased arrays – A Definition
A mosaic of transducer elements in which

the timing of the elements' excitation can be
individually controlled to produce certain
desired effects, such as steering the beam
axis or focusing the beam.
Leader in Array Technology

Common Probe Geometry
Linear
1D linear array 2D matrix
Circular
1D annular array 2D sectorial annular

Other Types of Array Probes
DUAL-ARRAY PROBES:
 Consist of separate transmitter (T) and
Receiver (R) arrays
 In side-by-side configuration, all considerations
for conventional TRL probes remain valid:
 Pseudo-focusing effect
 Absence of interface echo
 Improved SNR in attenuating materials
 In addition, every advantage of the PA technique
is available

Other Types of Array Probes
 1.5D dual-array

Illustration - Beam Generation and Focusing
Beam shaping is
performed by pulsing the
elements with different
time delays.
This picture shows the
elements in the array,
and the delay applied to
each element
These time delays (green
histogram) generate a
focused normal beam,
from the symmetrical
“parabolic” time delays

Illustration - Beam Deflection
For shear waves,

the time delay
pattern has a
“slant” as shown
here.
Focusing can be
performed by
using “parabolic”
time delays (see
previous slide), as
well as the slant.

Illustration - Beam Deflection and Focusing
The picture shows

the generated
beams in very early
stage,
mid-stage, late
stage and at focus.
For angling and
focusing, we use a
combined slant and
parabola.

How Phased Arrays Work - Beam Focusing
•large range of
focal depth
(focusing)
• adjustable each
pulse.

How Phased Arrays Work - Beam
Steering
• large range of
inspection angles
(sweeping)
• multiple modes
with a single
probe (SW, LW)

Key Concept
 Phased arrays do not change the physics

of ultrasound
 PA’s are merely a method of generating and
receiving a signal
 (and also displaying images)
 If you obtain X dB using conventional UT,

you should obtain the same signal
amplitude using PA’s.

Physics of Phased Arrays
 Ultrasonic phased arrays consist of a series of

individual elements, each with its own connector,
time delay circuit, and A/D converter.
 Elements are acoustically insulated from each
other.
 Elements are pulsed in groups with pre-calculated
time delays for each element, i.e., “phasing.”
 For economic reasons, pulsers are usually
multiplexed. Instrumentation nomenclature such
as a FOCUS 32:128 refers to an instrument with
32 multiplexed pulsers and a total of 128
ultrasonic channels.
 The elements are purchased as an “array” with

known geometry.
 Arrays are manufactured using several standard
“designs”, or
 Arrays can be specifically built for special
applications, as with conventional ultrasonic
transducers.
 Typical array designs are:
 Linear
 Matrix
 Circular
 Sectorial-annular
 Linear arrays are the most common type, and can

perform scanning in one dimension only. Linear
arrays typically minimize the number of elements
required, and hence, cost.
 Matrix arrays can scan in two dimensions, and
offer considerably more flexibility, albeit at a
price.
 Circular and sectorial-annular arrays are specific
for normal beam inspections, e.g., billets, forgings.

Phased Array Probe
Basically, a phased-array is a long conventional probe
cut into many elements.

 The operator inputs the focal depth(s), inspection

angle(s) and/or couplant, type of scan, plus how
many and which elements are to be fired.
 The operator must also input details on the array
and wedge, OR the system has probe recognition.
 The phased array calculator calculates what time
delays to apply to each element.
 For standard scans (e.g., electronic or sectorial),
the set-up is essentially straightforward.

Operator defines depth and refracted angle (1/2)
Snell point X axis or Scan axis
Interface
Law scan offset
Depth Focal point (X,Z)

Angle
The calculator searches the Snell point. It considers the center of the active
aperture (from elements 2 to 7 in this example).
Then, the X, Z point of the focal point is determined.
The wedge delay is calculated and the focal law is offset accordingly.
Calculator (2/2)
The focal law (difference in delay to reach the focal point) for each
element is then calculated.
Fermat principle:
The actual path between two points taken by a beam of light (or sound) is
the one that is crossed in the shortest time.
X axis or Scan axis

Interface
Time
Sound path (time)
In wedge
Focal point (X,Z)
In materiel
Element number

 The calculator produces a file called a

FOCAL LAW, which defines the elements
to be fired, time delays, voltages, for both
the transmitter and receiver functions.
 This is an ASCII file, and can be edited,
e-mailed, etc. as required.
 Both TomoScan FOCUS (TomoView) and
OmniScan use the same FL format (and
data format).

Phased Array Basics
• For electronic scans, arrays are multiplexed using the same Focal Law.
• For sectorial scans, the same elements are used, but the Focal Laws are
changed.
• For Dynamic Depth Focusing, the receiver Focal Laws are only changed in
hardware.

Phased Array Beamforming
Beamforming requires precise pulsing and time delays.

Receiving is the reverse of pulsing.

Phased-Array Waveforming
 Beam steering using phased-array probe (RECEPTION):

 appropriate delays introduced electronically during
reception
 Only signals “satisfying” delay law shall be “in phase”
and generate significant signal after summation

UT Phased Arrays
Principles and Capabilities
UT Phased Arrays
Principles and Capabilities
 OVERVIEW
 Design parameters of phased-array probes

 Beam focusing
 Beam steering
 Electronic scanning
 Array lobes

Design Parameters of Phased-Array Probes
 A linear array (1D) is

basically a long
conventional probe…
 Cut in many small

elements, that can be
individually excited.

A
e
p g

Design parameters of Phased-Array probes
 WEDGE PARAMETERS
 Velocity in wedge (vw)
 Wedge angle ()
 Height of first element (h1)
Wedge (vw)
 Offset first element (x1)
inc
h1
x1
ref

PROBE PARAMETERS
 Frequency (f), wavelength ()
 Total number of elements in array (n)
 Total aperture in steering direction (A)
 Height, aperture in passive direction (H)
 Width of an individual element (e)
 Pitch, center-to-center distance between two

successive elements (p)
 With OmniScan, array data is input electronically,
and wedge number is input by operator.

Beam Focusing
 Is the capability to converge the acoustic energy

into a small focal spot
 Allows for focusing at several depths, using a
single probe
 Symmetrical (e.g., parabolic) focal laws (time
delay vs. element position)
 Is limited to near-field only
 Can only perform in the steering plane, when
using a 1D-array

Beam Focusing
UNFOCUSED BEAM:
 Near-field and natural divergence of acoustic
beam are determined by total aperture A and
wavelength  (not by number of elements)
A2
 Near-field N
4

 Divergence (half angle , at –6 dB ) sin   0.5 
A
z
 Beam dimension (at depth z) d
A

Beam Focusing
FOCUSED BEAM:
 Focusing coefficient (K) is defined as
where F: focal distance F

N: near-field K
N
 Beam dimension (dst) in steering plane

at focal distance is given by d    F
st
A

Beam Steering
 Is the capability to modify the refracted angle of

the beam generated by the array probe
 Allows for multiple angle inspections, using a
single probe
 Applies asymmetrical focal laws
 Can only be performed in steering plane, when

using 1D-arrays
 Can generate both L (compression) and SV (shear
vertical) waves, using a single probe

Beam Steering
 Steering capability is related to the width of

an individual element of the array

 Maximum steering angle sin  st  0.5 
(at –6 dB), given by e
 Steering range can be modified using an
angled wedge

Electronic (originally Linear) Scanning
 Is the ability to move the acoustic beam along the

axis of the array without any mechanical
movement.
 The beam movement is performed by time
multiplexing of the active elements
 Scanning extent is limited by:
 number of elements in array

 number of “channels” in acquisition system

Electronic Scanning

Combined Beam Processing
 Thephased-array technique allows for

almost any combination of processing
capabilities:
 focusing + steering
 electronic scanning + steering
 electronic scanning + focusing

Array Lobes
Array Lobes
 Far-fieldpattern of an array probe shows a

main beam and grating lobes at regular
angular spacing
 Array lobes reduce useful steering range,
and may generate multiple images

Array Lobes
A Fourier Transformation:
 Beam width (main beam,
e
p
lobes) determined by
aperture A
 Steering width determined
by element width e
Z
 Angular position of
Fourier transformation lobes determined by
sinc(ex/lz) sinc(Ax/lz) frequency f and pitch p:

-lz/p lz/p  lobe  
p

Array Lobes
n=8 Array Main Influence of pitch p

p=9 lobe lobe (for A = fixed):
n=12
 If p , or n 
p=6 then lobe distance 
n=16
and lobe amplitude 
p=4.5
n=20
Solution: Design array
p=3.6 lobes out.

003-How Phased Arrays Work

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How Phased Arrays Work

A mosaic of transducer elements in which

Leader in Array Technology

1D linear array 2D matrix

1D annular array 2D sectorial annular

Leader in Array Technology

Leader in Array Technology

Leader in Array Technology

For shear waves,

Leader in Array Technology

The picture shows

Leader in Array Technology

Leader in Array Technology

Leader in Array Technology

 Phased arrays do not change the physics

 If you obtain X dB using conventional UT,

Leader in Array Technology

 Ultrasonic phased arrays consist of a series of

 The elements are purchased as an “array” with

 Linear arrays are the most common type, and can

Leader in Array Technology

Basically, a phased-array is a long conventional probe

cut into many elements.

Leader in Array Technology

 The operator inputs the focal depth(s), inspection

Leader in Array Technology

Snell point X axis or Scan axis

Depth Focal point (X,Z)

X axis or Scan axis

Leader in Array Technology

 The calculator produces a file called a

Leader in Array Technology

Leader in Array Technology

Beamforming requires precise pulsing and time delays.

Leader in Array Technology

 Beam steering using phased-array probe (RECEPTION):

Leader in Array Technology

Principles and Capabilities

 Design parameters of phased-array probes

Leader in Array Technology

 A linear array (1D) is

 Cut in many small

Leader in Array Technology

Leader in Array Technology

Leader in Array Technology

 Total aperture in steering direction (A)

 Height, aperture in passive direction (H)

 Width of an individual element (e)

 Pitch, center-to-center distance between two

Leader in Array Technology

 Is the capability to converge the acoustic energy

Leader in Array Technology

Leader in Array Technology

where F: focal distance F

 Beam dimension (dst) in steering plane

Leader in Array Technology

 Is the capability to modify the refracted angle of

 Can only be performed in steering plane, when

Leader in Array Technology

 Steering capability is related to the width of

Leader in Array Technology

 Is the ability to move the acoustic beam along the

 number of elements in array