STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
Atomic - Molecular Theory
of Matter
The Atomic - Molecular Theory of Matter
states that all matter is composed of small,
fast moving particles called atoms. These
atoms can join together to form molecules.
This theory is really thousands of individual
theories that provide evidence for the whole
theory.
 Matter
• Since the atom is too small to be seen even with the
most powerful microscopes, scientists rely upon
models to help us to understand the atom.

• Believe it or not this is a

microscope. Even with the
world’s best microscopes we
cannot clearly see the
structure or behavior of the
atom.
Where did it all begin?

The word “atom” comes from

the Greek word “atomos”
which means indivisible.
The idea that all matter is
made up of atoms was first
proposed by the Greek
philosopher Democritus in
the 5th century B.C.
 History of the Atom
Niels Bohr is one of many
scientists that have given us a
better understanding of
Atoms.
The concept of atoms as
proposed by Democritus
remained relatively unchanged
for over 2,000 years. In the
late 18th century new
discoveries were made that led
to a better understanding of
atoms and chemistry. Many
scientists since that time have
contributed new evidence for
the Atomic - Molecular Theory.
 WHAT IS AN ATOM?
o The smallest unit of an
element.
o Consists of a central
nucleus surrounded by one
or more electrons.
WHAT IS THE
NUCLEUS?
o The central part of an atom.
o Composed of protons and
neutrons.
o Contains most of an atom's
mass.
WHAT IS A PROTON?
o Positively charged particle.
o Found within an atomic nucleus.

WHAT IS A NEUTRON?
o Uncharged particle.
o Found within an atomic nucleus.

WHAT IS AN ELECTRON?
o Negatively charged particle.
o Located in shells that
surround an atom's nucleus.
 Atomic Structure
Nucleus - the central portion of the atom.
Contains the protons and neutrons.
Electron Cloud - area around the nucleus
where electrons are found. Electrons are
arranged within the electron cloud in energy
levels (Energy levels are sometimes called
shells or orbits).
 Subatomic Particles
Proton - positive charged particle found
in the nucleus.
Mass = 1 amu. (a.m.u - Atomic Mass Unit)
Neutron - particle with no charge. Found
in the nucleus. Mass = 1 amu.
Electron - negative charged particle
found within the electron cloud .
Mass = 1/1836 amu.
 Why are all Atoms are Electrically
Neutral?
• Normally in an atom the • If an atom gains or
number of electrons loses electrons the atom
within the electron cloud is no longer neutral .
is equal to the number of This can happen if the
protons in the nucleus. atom absorbs or
The positive and negative releases energy The
charges cancel each atom is then called an
other out. Therefore, the ION.
atom is said to be
electrically neutral. IMPORTANT
In all ATOMS the number of
positively charged protons is
always equal to the number of
negatively charged electrons.
The Discovery of Electrons
• Late 1800’s & early 1900’s
Cathode ray tube experiments showed that
very small negatively charged particles are
emitted by the cathode material.

 1897 – J. J. Thomson
Modified the cathode ray tube and measured
the charge to mass ratio of these particles.
He called them electrons.
(Nobel prize in physics, 1906)

11
The Discovery of Electrons
 1909 – Robert A. Millikan
Determined the charge and the mass of the electron
from the oil drop experiment.
(The second American to win Nobel prize in physics
in 1923)

 1910 – Ernest Rutherford

Gave the first basically correct picture of the atom’s
structure.
(Nobel prize in chemistry in 1908)

12
The Discovery of Neutrons
 1932 – James Chadwick
recognized existence of massive neutral particles which
he called neutrons.
(Nobel prize in physics in 1935)
 The atomic mass of an element is mainly determined
by the total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus.
 The atomic number of an element is determined by
the total number of protons in the nucleus.

13
 The Discovery of Protons
 1913 – H.G.J. Moseley
Realized that the atomic number defines the
element:
 Each element differs from the preceding
element by having one more positive charge in its
nucleus.

 Along with a number of observations made by

Rutherford and some other physicists, this led to
the discovery of the proton.
 The elements differ from each other by the
number of protons in the nucleus.
14
 Rutherford’s Atom

 The atom is mostly empty space.

 It contains a very small, dense center
called the nucleus.
 Nearly all of the atom’s mass is in the
nucleus.
 The nuclear diameter is 1/10,000 to
1/100,000 times less than atom’s radius.

15
 CLASS ASSIGNMENT
• Draw a table for the comparison of
protons, neutrons and electrons.
MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC
NUMBER
REPRESENTATION
 EXAMPLE

HOW TO CALCULATE
Neutrons
EXAMPLE
 Atomic Number

The atomic number

• is specific for each element.
• is the same for all atoms of an element.
• is equal to the number of protons in an atom.
• appears above the symbol of an element.

Atomic Number 11
Symbol Na
 Atomic Number and Protons

Examples of atomic number and number of protons:

• Hydrogen has atomic number 1; every H atom has one
proton.
• Carbon has atomic number 6; every C atom has six
protons.
• Copper has atomic number 29; every Cu atom has 29
protons.
• Gold has atomic number 79; every Au atom has 79
protons.
 Electrons in An Atom

An atom
• of an element is electrically neutral; the net charge of
an atom is zero.
• has an equal number of protons and electrons.
number of protons = number of electrons

Aluminum has 13 protons and 13 electrons. The net

(overall) charge is zero.
13 protons (13+) + 13 electrons (13 -) = 0
 Mass Number
The mass number represents the number of particles in
the nucleus. It is equal to the number of protons + the
number of neutrons.
 Study Tip:
Protons and Neutrons

Number of protons = Atomic number

Number of protons + neutrons = Mass number

Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number

(protons)
 CLASS ASSIGNMENT
An atom of zinc has a mass number of 65.
A. How many protons are in this zinc atom?
1) 30 2) 35 3) 65
B. How many neutrons are in the zinc atom?
1) 30 2) 35 3) 65
C. What is the mass number of a zinc atom that
has 37 neutrons?
1) 37 2) 65 3) 67
 Solution
An atom of zinc has a mass number of 65.
A. How many protons are in this zinc atom?
1) 30 (atomic number 30)
B. How many neutrons are in the zinc atom?
2) 35 (65 – 30 = 35)
C. What is the mass number of a zinc atom that
has 37 neutrons?
3) 67 (30 + 37 = 67)
An atom has 14 protons and 20 neutrons.
A. Its atomic number is
1) 14 2) 16 3) 34
B. Its mass number is
1) 14 2) 16 3) 34
 Solution
An atom has 14 protons and 20 neutrons.

A. It has atomic number

1) 14

B. It has a mass number of

3) 34 (14 + 20 = 34)
PERIODIC TABLE
What are columns of elements called?
Columns of elements
1 2 groups 3 4 5 6 7 0
 Rows of elements
What are rows of elements called?
periods
1 •
2

7
Groups and periods
• How many electrons fit in each shell
around an atom?
• The maximum number of electrons that can occupy a
specific energy level can be found using the following
formula:
Electron Capacity = 2n2
Energy Level Shell Letter Electron Capacity
1 K 2
2 L 8
3 M 18
4 N 32
5 O 50
6 P 72
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus
in different energy levels or shells
and each shell is associated with
definite energy.
• The energy of the K shell is the least while
those of L, M, N and O shells increases
progressively.
• We also know that any system that has least
energy is the most stable.1st energy level is K
shell2nd energy level is L shell3rd energy level
is M shell4th energy level is N shell and so on.
 Rules
• Maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated
in a shell is given by 2n2 where
n = shell number
• For 1st energy level, n = 1Maximum number of electrons in
1st energy level = 2n22 x (1) 2 = 2
• For 2nd energy level n = 2Maximum number of electrons in
the 2nd energy level = 2n22 x 22 = 2 x 4 = 8
• For 3rd energy level n = 3Maximum number of electrons in
the 3rd energy level = 2n2= 2x(3) 2= 2 x 9 = 18
• For 4th energy level n = 4Maximum number of electrons in
the 4th energy level = 2n2= 2x(4) 2= 2x16 = 32
 Octet Rule

• The outermost shell of an atom cannot

accommodate more than 8 electrons, even if
it has a capacity to accommodate more
electrons. This is a very important rule and is
also called the Octet rule. The presence of 8
electrons in the outermost shell makes the
atom very stable.
Electronic Configurations of Some
Important Elements
Geometric Representation of
Atomic Structure

Example 1 : Magnesium
Atomic number:12
Mass Number:24
• Steps:

• The first 2 electrons will go to the 1st shell =

K Shell (2n2)
• The next shell L takes a maximum of 8
electrons (2n2)
• In this way 2 + 8 = 10 electrons have been
accommodated. The next 2 electrons go to
the M Shell.
 Class Assignment

• Draw the geometric representation of

first eighteen elements.
Check the structures
VALENCY AND IONS
VALENCY
IONS
An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net
positive or negative charge.
• cation – ion with a positive charge If a neutral
atom loses one or more electrons it becomes a
cation.

Na 11 protons Na+ 11 protons

11 electrons 10 electrons

• anion – ion with a negative charge if a neutral

atom gains one or more electrons it becomes an
anion.
Cl 17 protons 17 protons
Cl-
17 electrons 18 electrons
A monatomic ion contains
only one atom.

Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-

A polyatomic ion contains more
than one atom.
OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-
 ?
27 3+ ?
How many protons and electrons are in 13 Al

13 protons, 10 (13 – 3) electrons

How many protons and electrons are in
78 2-
34Se ?

34 protons, 36 (34 + 2) electrons

Some Ions In Periodic Table
CHEMICAL BONDS
 Chemical Bonding
• All known elements are arranged in the increasing
order of their atomic number in the modern
periodic table.
• In an atom, the outermost shell is known as
valence shell and electrons placed in this shell are
called as valence shell electrons.
• The valence shell electrons take part in the
chemical bonding and chemical reactions with
other atoms.
• All elements tend to get the octet configuration
which makes them stable just like Nobel gases.
• There are two possible ways to get this
configuration.

• One is either sharing their valence electrons

with other elements or by the complete
transfer of electrons to form ions.

• The sharing or transfer of electrons creates

some attraction force between elements that
is called as chemical bond.
• The formation of chemical bond completes the octet
configuration of element and makes them stable in a
molecule.

• The sharing of electrons between bonded atoms

forms a covalent bond whereas complete transfer of
electrons forms ionic bonds. Let’s discuss what
chemical bond is and how different types of chemical
bonds are formed between the elements.
 Types of Chemical Bonding

• As a matter of convenience we usually divide

chemical bonds into different types. There are
two major classes of bonding.
• Ionic bonding which results from electrostatic
interaction among ions; and can be formed by
the transfer of one or more electrons from one
atom or group of atoms to another.
• Covalent bonding which results from sharing one
or more electron pairs between two atoms.
• Electrovalent(ionic) compounds are
compounds formed by completed
transfer of electrons from a metallic
atom to a non-metallic atom resulting in
the formation of cation and anion.
 Electrovalent (ionic) Bonding

• When an atom donates one, two or three electrons from its

valence shell to another atom, which has the ability to accept
these electrons, it is known as electro-valency.
• As a result of electro-valency, both these atoms achieve the
structure of an inert gas.
• Electrovalent bond is the attractive force between the
oppositely charged ions, which comes into existence by the
transference of electrons.
 Ionic Bonding

• An ionic bond is a strong mutual attraction of

oppositely charged ions.
• Such bonds do not usually form by the direct
transfer of an electron from one atom to another;
rather atoms that have already become ions stay
close together because of their opposite charges.
• Ions may consist of single atom or multiple atoms, in which a
group of atoms is called a "polyatomic ion". Examples of
polyatomic anions include: carbonate ion, which is composed
of carbon and oxygen; and sulfate ion, which is composed of
sulfur and oxygen.

• An example of a polyatomic cation is ammonium ion, which

consists of nitrogen and hydrogen. Cation are usually metal
atoms and anions are either nonmetals or polyatomic ions. The
attraction of the two charges holds the atoms or molecules
together. Electrostatic forces hold ionic bonds together.
Ionic bond is also defined as:

"An ionic bond is the force of

attraction between oppositely charged
ions in a compound."
 Examples of Ionic Bonding

• Ionic compounds are made up of ions.

• For example, sodium chloride consists of
sodium ions and chloride ions. A strong
electrostatic force of attraction between
the oppositely charged ins holds them
together. This force of attraction is called
an ionic bond.
Two examples illustrate the formation of
ionic bonds. They are:
 Sodium chloride
• Hot sodium metal reacts with chlorine gas,
Cl2 to produce a white solid. The white solid
is the compound sodium chloride. In these
reaction, the sodium atom loses an electron
to become a sodium ion, Na+. The electron is
taken by a chlorine atom to become a chloride
ion, Cl- . There is a transfer of an electron
from the sodium atom to chlorine atom.
Formation of sodium ion
Formation of chloride ion
Formation of sodium chloride

The positive sodium ion Na+ and the negative chloride ion Cl- are
attracted by an electrostatic force. This force of attraction is
very strong and it is the ionic bond.
Structure of Sodium Chloride
 Magnesium Fluoride

• Magnesium fluoride MgF2 is an ionic compound.

The magnesium atom gives up two electrons to
form a magnesium ion Mg2+.
• The two electrons are transferred to two fluorine
atoms to form two fluoride ions F-.
• The magnesium fluoride has the formula MgF2.
• Each unit of magnesium fluoride consists of one
magnesium ion and two fluoride ions.
Structure of Magnesium Fluoride
 Ionic Compound

• An ionic compound is one, which consists of an ionic

bond.
• An ionic compound usually consists of a metal and a non
metal.
• Ionic compounds generally consist of a combination of
metals with non metals. Strong metallic elements form
ionic compounds with non-metallic elements. The rules
for forming ionic compounds are the same as the rules
for forming ionic bonds.
 What is an Ionic Compound?
• Ionic bond is formed by the transference of one
or more electrons from one atom to other.
• This type of bond usually comes into existence
between a metal and a non metal element.
• The metallic atom loses one or more electrons and
becomes a positive ion or cation, while the non
metal counterpart gains the electrons lost by the
metal atom and becomes negatively charged, to
form an anion. The negative ion and the positive
ions, thus formed attract each other and stay
together by electrostatic attraction.
• Thus, an ionic bond is defined as the electrostatic
force of attraction holding the oppositely charged
ions.
Formation of ionic bond involves the following
steps:

• Formation of cation from the metal atom.

• Formation of anion from a non metal atom.

• Association of oppositely charged ions due to

electrostatic attraction.
• Since every atom has its own oxidation state, it is
very much necessary to know the oxidation number
exhibited by a metal (positive) or a non
metal(negative), to write an ionic compound. It is
also necessary to remember that the charge on an
ionic compound should always be zero. Therefore,
the positive charge, should always cancel out the
negative charge, and vice versa.
Let us list out the oxidation states of some of
the most popular elements:

ELEMENT SYMBOL OXIDATION No.

Hydrogen H +1
Oxygen O -2
Chlorine Cl -1
Fluorine F -1
Bromine Br -1
Calcium Ca +2
Sulphur S -2
Nitrogen N -3
• All the first group elements IA, alkali metals
have a +1 oxidation state.
• All second group elements (IIA) and IIIA (13)
group elements have +2 and +3 oxidation states
respectively.
• Among non-metals from the nitrogen and
oxygen group, oxidation states of -3 and -2 are
highly prevalent. There are some discrepancies
in this case, where oxidation states of
elements or non metals present in these groups
show a different oxidation state.
• Halogens, Cl, F, Br and I always show -1
oxidation state.
COVALENT BONDING
Can we imagine a world without oxygen,
nitrogen, water or carbon dioxide?
Without any of these there would be no life
at all. All the above mentioned compounds
are covalent compounds formed by sharing
of electrons.
Non-metal atoms share the valence
electrons and form molecules. These
shared pairs of electrons contributed by
each of the atoms involved in bonding are
located between the nuclei of atoms.
Covalent bonds arise from the sharing of
electrons between two atoms.
Simple examples are found in water and carbon
dioxide.
Each single covalent bond by definition consists
of two shared electrons.
Double covalent bonds possess four shared
electrons and triple covalent bonds, six shared
electrons.
• The greater the multiplicity of the covalent bond,
the greater the energy of the bond and the closer
together of the two bonded atomic nuclei.
Covalent bonding may take place between atoms of the same
element as in a hydrogen molecule or a chlorine molecule.
• It may also take place between atoms of different elements
such as:
(i) Hydrogen and chlorine combine to form hydrogen chloride
(HCl).
(ii) Carbon and oxygen combine to form carbon dioxide (CO2).

Covalent bonds are formed between non-metal atoms. Each of

the atoms involved in bonding contribute one, two, three or
more electrons to form the shared pair.
EXAMPLES
 Formation of Hydrogen
Molecule

H H

electron present in K shell of the hydrogen atom

Here the shared pair consists of two electrons, one
electron being contributed by each of the hydrogen
atoms. This is called a shared pair.
• Depending on the number of electron
pairs shared between atoms which
participate in bonding, covalent bonds
are classified as follows:
•
Examples of Covalent Bonding

There are many examples of compounds having covalent

bonds, including the gases in our atmosphere, common
fuels and most of the compounds in our body.
The molecules and ions just mentioned are composed
entirely of nonmetals atoms. A point that needs special
emphasis is that in molecules or ions (SO42-, NO3- etc.)
made up only of nonmetals atoms, the atoms are
attached by covalent bonds.
 Methane molecule (CH4)

The electronic configuration of carbon is 2,4. It

needs 4 more electrons in its outer shell to be
like the noble gas neon. To do this one carbon
atom shares four electrons with the single
electrons from four hydrogen atoms. The
methane molecule has four C-H single bonds.
 Water molecule (H2O)
one oxygen atom joins with two hydrogen atoms.
The water molecule has two O-H single bonds.

-- -
-
 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
one carbon atom joins with two oxygen atoms.
The carbon dioxide molecule has two C=O bonds.
 Isotopes
• The number of protons in the nucleus is known as the
atomic/proton number of the particular element. It is
conventionally represented by the symbol Z. It is the
proton/atomic number (Z) that determines the number of
electrons, specific electron structure and the specific
identity of an element in terms of its physical and chemical
properties.
• Since an atom having no charge, means the number of
electrons must be equal to the number of protons that is
the atomic number. Hence, in an atom the atomic number is
also equal to the number of electrons.
 • All atoms have a certain value of mass number which is derived as follows.
Hence, the sum of number of proton and neutron is known as mass number.
The number of neutrons, N, is known as the number of neutrons in an atom.
Thus,
A = Z + N

The mass of protons and neutrons have approximately same, hence the
atomic mass of an atom is equal to A. On the basis of atomic number and
mass number, elements can be classified as isotopes, isobars and isotones.
Let’s discuss about isotopes with some common examples.
•
ISOTOPES DEFINITION

• "Different kinds of atoms of the same

element which have the same atomic
number but different mass numbers or
atomic masses (or atomic weights) are
called isotopes of that element."
As isotopes have the same atomic number, we
may define it as:
"Atoms of the same element with same
number of protons, but a different number
of neutrons in their respective nuclei."
CHARACTERISTICS OF ISOTOPES

• The isotopes of any element will have the same

number of valence electrons or valency, resulting
in identical chemical properties.
• The isotopes' physical properties are different
mainly due to the neutron number variation,
present in the nucleus. Properties such as melting
point, boiling point, density etc., which depend
upon the atomic mass should be different for
different isotopes because the isotopes of an
element have different masses.
– Cl - 35.5
– Cu = 63.5
 Atomic Mass of Isotopes

Atomic mass
= Mass of neutrons + Mass of protons
of an isotope
Isotopes of Hydrogen
ISOTOPES OF CHLORINE
ISOTOPES OF CARBON
• Since isotopes of an element have the same
atomic number, each of these isotopes contains
equal numbers of protons in the nucleus and
an equal number of electrons revolving in different
orbits around the nucleus.

• Now, since they have different mass numbers, they

have a different number of neutrons in their nuclei.
Thus, the number of protons (p), neutrons (n) and
electrons (e) in an isotope with atomic number, Z and
mass number A is given by these following relations.

Number of protons = p = Z
Number of neutrons = n = A - Z
Number of electrons = e = Z
 USES OF ISOTOPES
There are several applications of Isotopes.
Radioisotopes are used as radioactive tracers.
Radioactive isotopes have a property by which
they can be easily detected and estimated
quantitatively.
• They are also used in studying the reaction
mechanisms of complicated reactions like
photosynthesis, hydrolysis of esters, etc.
• Radioactive isotopes are used as a tracer to
diagnose many diseases. This is a very important
use of radioisotope. The presence and location of
a brain tumor, to detect the circulation of blood,
to check the pumping action of blood, function of
thyroid gland, etc. can be found with the help of
radioisotopes.
• Apart from the radioisotopes, Isotopes
of carbon have been used in carbon dating, a
phenomenon for detecting the age of wood.

• Similarly, isotopes of Hydrogen, Nitrogen and

oxygen finds use in biological systems.
THE END