Wind loading and structural response

Lecture 18 Dr. J.D. Holmes

Low-rise buildings
 Low-rise buildings

• Low-rise buildings : enclosed structures less than 50 feet (15 metres) in height

• Immersed within aerodynamic roughness - high turbulence, shelter

effects are important

• Wind loads on roofs are very important

• Internal pressures are important - especially for dominant openings

• Resonant effects are negligible

• Sustain most damage in severe wind storms

• Extensive research on wind loads in 1970’s, 1980’s and 1990’s - wind

tunnel and full scale
 Low-rise buildings

• Full-scale studies

Dimensions in mm :

1
10
slope

1600

h/zo=170
3050 1500
(Jensen Number )

• Small shed used by Jensen in Denmark in 1950’s

 Low-rise buildings

• Full scale studies

• Aylesbury Experimental Building, U.K. 1970-5

• Variable pitch roof (adjustable between 5 and 45 degrees)

• Use for an international comparative wind tunnel experiment

 Low-rise buildings

• Full scale studies

• Texas Tech Field Experiment , U.S. 1987- now

• Flat roof. Can be rotated on turntable.

• High quality data on fluctuating local and area-averaged pressures

 Low-rise buildings

• Wind-tunnel studies

Comparison of mean pressures on centerline by Jensen (1958)

Cp=1.0

h/zo=13 h/zo=170 h/zo=4400 h/zo=

rougher terrain smoother terrain

need to match correct Jensen Number (h/zo) to get correct mean pressure coefficients
 Low-rise buildings

• General flow characteristics (0o to wall):

(movie by Shimizu Corporation, Tokyo, Japan)

 Low-rise buildings

• General flow characteristics (45o to wall):

(movie by Shimizu Corporation, Tokyo, Japan)

 Low-rise buildings

• General flow characteristics :

Separation Shear layer positions:

“bubble” High turbulence
Low turbulence

Fluctuating re-
Stagnation attachment
Point point

• Flow separates at leading edge of roof and at ridge for roof pitches greater than
about 10o

• Distance to reattachment depends on turbulence (Jensen Number)

 Low-rise buildings

• General flow characteristics :

Cp (t)

ˆ Cp
C p

C p


C p

Time
Four values of pressure coefficients :

p  p0 p 2
p̂  p 0
 p  p0
Cp  Cp  σ Cp  Ĉ p  Cp 
1 1 1 1
ρ a U h2 ρ a U h2 ρ a U h2 ρ a U h2
2 2 2 2
 Low-rise buildings

• Mean pressure coefficients on pitched roofs :

5o roof pitch :

h/d = 1.0
wind tunnel

h/d = 0.4
Cp = 1.0

5 roof pitch

No separation at ridge. Higher negative pressures for greater h/d.

 Low-rise buildings

• Mean pressure coefficients on pitched roofs :

12o roof pitch :

h/d = 1.0

h/d = 0.4
wind tunnel

h/d = 0.2
Cp = 1.0
12

Second separation at ridge. Higher negative pressures for greater h/d.

 Low-rise buildings

• Mean pressure coefficients on pitched roofs :

18o roof pitch :

h/d = 1.0

h/d = 0.4
wind tunnel

h/d = 0.2
Cp = 1.0 18

Pressure on windward face is less negative at lower h/d’s.

 Low-rise buildings

• Mean pressure coefficients on pitched roofs :

30o roof pitch :

h/d = 1.0

h/d = 0.4
wind tunnel

h/d = 0.2
Cp = 1.0
30

Positive pressure on upwind face of roof for lower h/d’s. Uniform

negative pressure on downwind roof.
 Low-rise buildings

• Mean pressure coefficients on pitched roofs :

45o roof pitch :

h/d = 1.0

h/d = 0.4
wind tunnel

h/d = 0.2
Cp = 1.0
45

High positive pressure on upwind face of roof at all h/d. Uniform

negative pressure on downwind roof.
 Low-rise buildings

• Fluctuating and peak pressures at corners of roofs :

-2

Cp
-4

-6

-8

-10
0 3 6 9 12 15
Time (minutes)

High negative pressure peaks (‘spikes’) near corners - associated with

formation of conical vortices
 Low-rise buildings

• Fluctuating and peak pressures at corners of roofs :

Formation of conical vortices

30-60o
 Low-rise buildings

• Cladding loads on pitched roofs :

Largest minimum pressure coefficients for any wind direction :

-1 -2
-2
-3
-2
-3 -2
-3 -4 -4
-4
-3 -3
-5 -5

10O 15O

-2
-3 -3
-2

Contours converge towards corner of roof (effect of conical vortices)

 Low-rise buildings

• Cladding loads on pitched roofs :

Largest minimum pressure coefficients for any wind direction :

-2.5
-4 -3 -1.5 -2.5 -1.5
-3
-4
-2
-2
-5 -5
-5
-4
-7
20o 30o
-2
-2 -3 -2.5

Gable end has highest minimum pressure coefficients

 Low-rise buildings

• Structural loads :

Calculate peak structural loads and effective static load distributions :

Instantaneous load around frame will vary in magnitude and distribution

Codes and standards give simplified uniform distributions on surfaces

 Low-rise buildings

• Structural loads :

Load effect e.g knee bending moment will experience maximum and
minimum values during a storm :
Maximum value
Bending
moment

Time

Minimum value

Either or both values may be critical - depending on b.m. due to dead load

Each peak value has an expected pressure distribution associated with it

 Low-rise buildings

• Structural loads :

Effective static pressure distribution for knee bending moment :

Expected pressure
Range of distribution for maximum
pressure bending moment at B
fluctuations - -
B

- -
+ +

Load distribution determined from correlations of pressures/ influence lines

(Chapter 5/ Lecture 13)

Must fall within envelope of maximum and minimum pressures

 Low-rise buildings

• Shelter and interference :

building height / spacing - critical parameter

three flow regimes : skimming flow (close spacing)

wake-interference flow (medium spacing)

isolated roughness flow (far spacing)

 Low-rise buildings

• Multi-span buildings :

pitches less than 10 degrees are ‘aerodynamically flat’ :

+ + - + +
+ + -
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• Multi-span buildings :

Saw-tooth roofs - magnitude of negative pressures reduces downwind :

largest negative pressures

+-
-

Cp=1
+
 Low-rise buildings
• Long low-rise buildings :

Bulk Sugar Storage Shed :

Span (d) = 46m, Length (b) = 303m,  = 35o

 Low-rise buildings
• Long low-rise buildings :
Peak Cps on  = 35o Building, Frame B,  = 45o
3 .0

2 .0

1 .0
B
0 .0 
Cp eak

-1 .0 0 15.95 31 .9 47.85 63 .8 35

6m
-2 .0

-3 .0

-4 .0

-5 .0

D istanc e alo ng frame , (m )

AR =2.4 AR =4 AR=6

• Increasing suction on leeward roof slope and wall as AR increases

 End of Lecture 18

John Holmes
225-405-3789 JHolmes@lsu.edu