Department of Animal Nutrition

Role of Feed Additives and Biostimulants

in Livestock Feeding
 What is feed additives ?

• It is an ingredient or combination of ingredient mixed together

to provide nutrient in the diet.

• Usually they are used in micro/small

Quantities for purpose of improving rate
of gain, feed efficiency, or preventing and
controlling disease.
 Why use feed additives ?

• To increase feed quality and feed palatability.

• To improve animal performance by promoting animal growth
& lowering feed consumption.
• Stimulate growth or other types of performance.
•Improve feed utilization.
• To economise the cost of animal protein.
Evaluating feed additives:
 Higher milk yield.

 Increase in milk components.

 Greater dry matter intake.

 Stimulates rumen microbial synthesis

 Increase digestion in digestive tract.

Cont……
 Stabilize rumen environment and pH

 Improve growth

 Minimize weight loss

 Reduce heat stress

 Improve health
Feed additives are broadly classified into 2 groups
I II
Nutrient Non nutrient
feed additive feed additive
1.Antibiotic
2. Probiotics
1.Synthetic amino acid 3. Hormones
2.Minerals 4.Arsenicals
3.Vitamins 5.Tranquillisers
6.Copper-sulphate
7.Yeast culture
8. Feed enzymes additives
9.Antioxidents
10.Mycotoxin binders
11Pellet binders
12.Methane binders
13.Antifungal agents
1. Antibiotic Feed Additives:-

•Antibiotic are group of soluble organic substances produced from

microorganism.
• Having the capacity of inhibiting the growth of other microorganism,
even having the capacity of destroying them .

a) Non- ionophore antibiotic :- e.g., chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline,

zinc bacitracin, virginiamycin, flavomycin, bambermycin, avoparcin,
tylosin etc.
Mode of action of antibiotic:

1. Antibiotic spares protein amino acid and vitamins,

2. They act by increasing the absorption of B-complex vitamin in gastro-
intestinal tract.
3. They increase the absorptive capacity of the intestine.
4. Suppressing or destroying organisms, which produced sub-clinical
infections and compete with the host for supplies of nutrients.
5. Stimulating the growth of microorganism which synthesizes essential
nutrients.
6. Antibiotic alters intestinal bacteria so that less urease is produced and
thus less ammonia is formed. As ammonia is harmful and suppresses
growth in non-ruminants
Antibiotics in pig feeding:
• The good effect of feeding the Antibiotic feed supplement is
observed with animals given all vegetable protein diets than
those receiving animal protein supplements.

• The increase in growth rate may between 10-20 Percent and

reducing the feed intake by about 2-5 percent.

• Highest the nutritive value of ration.

• The antibiotic Improves the efficiency of feed utilization to
the extent of 5-8 percent.
Antibiotics in poultry feeding:-

•Pencillin is more effective than other antibiotics especially to young and

growing chicks.

•It increase the growth rate and this effect is most marked up to one
month of age.

•In the laying birds the egg production is also improved.

•About 5 g of procaine pencillin per ton of ration for poultry is needed;

but to control diseases , a higher level of 50 gm or more /ton for feed is
used.
 CONT……

•A mixture of two or more antibiotic is no more effective than the single effective
antibiotic.
• The greatest beneficial effect of antibiotic feeding is observed during the early
growth period between weaning and 50 Kg bodyweight, there after the effect
diminishes with age.
• If the antibiotics are stopped in the ration of pigs after 50 Kg body weight, the
initial advantage in the improvement of growth rate is last.

• Therefore", it is recommended to feed the antibiotics till the pigs reach the market
weight.

•Runty pigs give better response with antibiotic.

•The optimum level of most antibiotics lie within the range 1to 50 mg/kg.
Antibiotic in ruminant feeding:-

•Reduce incidence of diarrhoea in young calves.

•Check the subclinical infections and improves growth rate and feed
efficiency .
•Most of the growth improvement occurs before the calves are 8-10
weeks of age.
•Reduce the incidence of liver abscesses in beef cattle fed high grain
rations.
B) Ionophore Antibiotics:-

•These are produced by several strains of streptomyces spp. E.g.,- monensin, lasalocid,
salinomycin, lysocellin.

•They are mainly active against Gram-positive organisms.

*Monensin (Trade name:Rumensin):-

•Polyether ionophore antibiotic, it is produced by a strain of Streptomyces
cinnamonesis.

•It is useful as an anticoccidial agent for broilers and lambs.

Effect of Ionophores on rumen Fermentation:-

•Increase the rumen propionate and decrease the acetate concentration

and decrease the acetate propionate ratio.
•Decrease methane production.
•Ionophores depress the activity of some rumen enzymes like protease,
deaminases and urease.
•Lower Ca and Potassium concentrations.

•ME value of the diet may be increased by approximately 10 %.

Lasalocid (Trade name:- Bovitec):-
•It is produced by fungi Streptomyces lasoliensis and is more potent than monensin.
•It is more potent than monensin.

*Lysocellin :
•It is a divalent polyether antibiotic obtained from Streptomyces cacaoci.

Absorbable Antibiotics Non-absorbable Antibiotics

Eg. Tetracyclins, oxytetracyclins and Eg. – zincbaciracin, avoparcin, monensin,

chlortetracyclins virginiamycin, halquinol.
Note-
*Both the ionophore and non-ionophore antibiotics have been used in
nonruminants and preruminants, while only the ionophores have been
successfully used used in adult ruminants.

*As a result of the “Swann Commission” in 1972 the use of tetracylins as

well as penicillins was banned in Europe as feed additives.

*Only monensin, salinomycin, bambermycin/flavomycin and avilamycin

are the final four feed grade pharmaceutical antibiotics remaining on the
approved list.
Arsenicals:-

•Arsenicals has Growth promoting properties.

•Mainly added to diet of chicks.
•Arsanilic acid is less toxic than 3-Nitro.
•Arsenicals should not be included in the rations for ducks and
geese.

Eg:- 3-nitro-4-hydroxy phenylarsonic acid (3-nitro)

Arsanilic acid
Copper supplements:-
•These are routinely added to pig grower diets as
growth promoters.
•Its has a bactericidal properties.

Sheep are susceptible to copper poisoning

Hormones:-
•The active principles secreted by the endocrine glands into the blood for transportation to target
organs and tissues are known as hormones.
•These are endogenous origin.
•They are broadly of two types.

1. Anabolic agents:- (e.g. Somatotropin, Thyroxine, Androgens)

•The hormones of the anabolic class by nature exert their effect on both skeleton and
protein metabolism.
• Somatotrapin stimulates growth of endochondral bones and epiphysis of long bones
while in protein metabolism it aids nitrogen and overall protein synthesis.
• Thyroxin also stimulates growth of long bones as well as protein synthesis.

•Testosterone at low dose increases the epiphyseal diameter, promotes muscles growth
by augmenting nitrogen retention.
2. Catabolic agent: (e.g. Oestrogens, Glucocorticoids)

•The hormone belonging to catabolic group similarly exert their on both

skeleton and protein metabolism.

• Estrogens inhibits skeletal growth although in ruminants.

•it increases nitrogen retention.

•Gluco- corticoids decrease growth of epiphysis and also aid in

degrading protein and amino acids and there by inhibit protein synthesis
in extra hepatic tissues.
Effect of Hormones on milk production:-

•It is an established fact that milk production in the cow will increase
following the feeding of thyroprotein or thyroxin.
•The most effective daily dose appear to be about 15 g/cow in case of
thyroprotein and 100mg/ cow daily for thyroxin.

• The addition of hormones in the diet of cows has increase milk

production from 15 to 20% above control animals, if concomitant
increase in energy intake was maintained.

• If additional feed is not given then the response is either very poor or
nil.
Effect of hormone on growth:
•Synthetic Oestrogenic hormones like stilbesterol are being used in many countries as
growth promoters.
•Studies with fattening lambs have shown that feeding 2-5 mg of stilbesterol daily
increase the average daily gain about 20 percent and reduced the feed Intake per
unit of gain.
•These substances either be given at the rate of 10 mg/ day in beef cattle or can be
implanted under the skin in the form of pellets in a single dose of 75 g and 10 mg in
sheep.
• Synthetic estrogens should never be given to female animals; otherwise there will be
derangement of the breeding behavior.

•Some workers have reported increased rate of. gain improved feed efficiency as a
results of feeding thyroprotein or thyroxin to growing pigs from the time of weaning to
market weight.
Harmful effect of hormone feeding:-

• There are certain side effect in the animals fed on synthetic hormones,
such as (a) restlessness (b) milk secretion from rudimentary teats etc.

• The most serious danger is to the human being arising from the
residues of synthetics estrogen in the meat which have carcinogenic
properties.

• Feeding of thyroprotein in dairy animals causes general excitability

and injuries in the body.
Anabolic steroids:-
These are banned in European Union since 1989.
•Oestradiol-17 ß is a natural oestrogen produced by ovaries.
Zeranol:-
•Non –steroid anabolic agent with estrogenic properties.
•It is a chemical derivative of resorcyclic acid lactone, a product of
fermentation.
•It is a chemical derivative of Fusarium mould toxin produced by
Gibberella zeae, zeralenone.
•Zeranol implants increase apparent absorption of Ca, P, Mg and Zn.
•It is approved for growth promotion in cattle in an implantable form.
•It stimulates pituitary gland to secrete increased amount of
somatotropin growth hormone.
TBA:-(Trenbolone acetate)-

•It is a synthetic anabolic agent with androgenic properties.

•similar to testosterone in promoting growth rate but no side effect.

Note-
•Hexesterol is synthetic oestrogen.
•Melengesterol is synthetic progesterone
Attributes of Somatotropin:-

•It stimulate various biosynthesis processes.

•It influence biosynthesis of protein in muscle cell directly.
•Increase nitrogen retention in body.
•It increases the growth of skeletal tissues as well.
Note- * Growth hormone is a powerful lactogenic stimulant
than anabolic agent.
Goitrogens:-
•These are anti thyroid principles which depress the activity of thyroid gland and
depress growth.e.g. Thiourea and thiouracil

•In poultry thiouracil in combination with diethyl stilbesterol improves finish and
market quality without depressing growth rate.

ß-adrenergic Agonists:-
•These are orally active.
•These are used to enhance the lean content and reduce the fat content
of animals.
e.g. Clenbuterol, Cimaterol
*Clenbuterol:-
•It encourages lipolysis and these fatty acids in farm animals are
reported to be utilized for protein synthesis.
Immunomodulators:-
• These are the compounds obtained from organisms or synthesized chemically which
are capable of enhancing the defence mechanism of animals.

• These are two types 1. Natural immunomodulators, 2. Synthetic immunomodulators

Potent immunomodulator:- cell wall preparation, Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Levamisole
1 They act as a barrier to infection against specific and non-specific pathogens. ,
2. They enhance the microbe killing activity of the macrophage, lymphocytes and
natural killer cells.
3. Some activate the complement system also and enhance the phagocytosis of the
cells.
e.g. Glucans are one of the most important structural elements of fungal cell walls,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Chitin is an immunomodulator. It is polysaccharide obtained from crustacean shells,
insect exoskeletons and cell wall of certain fungi.
3. Probiotics:
•The term probiotic means ‘for life’.
•These are live cultures of non-pathogenic viable organisms which are administered
orally.
•Probiotics are coined by Parker in 1974 as an organisms and substances which
contribute to intestinal microbial balance.
•Fuller in 1989 defined probiotics as live microbial feed supplements which
beneficially affect the host animal by improving its intestinal microbial balance.
•Probiotics are available in pastes, powder and liquid form or directly fed feed
additives.
• The term pronutrient may also be used for probiotic.
•Most commonly used microorganisms, as probiotics are Lactobacillus acidophillus,
Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus lactis, Aspergillus oryzae, Streptococcus
foecium, Saccharomyces cerevisiae etc. Live yeast culture, Direct fed microbials
(DFM) and curds are examples of probiotics
Characteristics of a good probiotics:
1. It should not be toxic or pathogenic to the host.
2 . It should have a positive effect on the host.
3. It should be posses high survival rate and multiply faster in the
digestive tract. The adhesive capability to microorganisms must be firm
and faster.
4. It should be cheap and economical.

5. Feeding of probiotic to animals should be easy, safe and simple.

Pigs and Probiotics:-
•Probiotics prevent and control the incidence of diarrhoea in pigs.
•Feeding probiotics (L. acidophilus and S. faecium) improved weight
gain and feed efficiency.
•Probiotic species Bacillus subtilis reduce the number reduce the number
of E. coli in sows.

Poultry and Probiotics:-

•Lactobacillus probiotic and zinc bacitracin had similar effects in
stimulating weight gain and feed efficiency of broilers.
 YEAST CULTURE

 In 1966 Hungate observes that

When Fermentation Products

(Yeast Culture) add in Diet

Rumen bacterial Concentration increased

resulting increase digestibility

Eg. – Saccharomyces cerevisiae

 Yeast culture

Increased bacterial population in rumen

Increased flow of Increased degradation

Microbial protein of fibre in rumen
From rumen leading increased
feed intake

increased animal productivity

Direct –fed Microbials :-
•Direct-fed microbials, particularly bacteria and yeast can replace antibiotics in
livestock and poultry feed.
•The FDA defines direct-fed microbials as “a source of live (viable) naturally-
occurring microorganisms ”
•One major difference between antibiotics and direct-fed microbials is that direct-fed
microbials are living organisms.
• Direct-fed microbials include Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Bacillus and yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae).
•These microorganisms vary considerably in their ability to withstand various
environmental conditions.
• Lactobacillus are delicate microorganisms that are unable to withstand
environmental extremes, such as the heat and pressure of pelleting.

Bacillus are very stable microorganisms that can survive pelleting due to their
ability to form spores that are resistant to changes in temperature, pressure and
moisture
Direct –fed Microbials for calves:-
•Calves are born with nearly sterile gastrointestinal tract.
•During the first two weeks of the calf’s life, it is especially
easy for toxin –producing coliform bacteria like E. coli to
colonise the gut.
•This irritates the intestinal tract and lead to scours.
•Certain types of DFM oral pastes and feed supplements are
designed to prevent or reduce E.coli scours in calves.
Mannan Oligosaccharides (MOS) :-
• MOS, a complex carbohydrate extracted from yeast cell wall, improves the health
and performance of monogastric animals.
• MOS blocks attachment of pathogenic bacteria to the animal’s intestine and
prevents colonisation that can result in disease.
• In addition, MOS may stimulate the animal’s immune system, thereby further
reducing the risk of disease.
• MOS increased the release of cytokines, which coordinate activity among different
cells of the immune system.
• MOS also enhanced interleukin-2 concentration.
• The immune function requires interleukin-2 for T-cell proliferation and
differentiation.
• Research findings strongly favour dietary supplementation of live yeast culture as a
stress reliever during the hot season of the year and of intensive rearing of livestock
and as a probiotic to increase the rate of fibre degradation and thus increase feed
intake and eventually animal productivity.
Fructo- Oligosaccharides (FOS):-
• Short chain fructo-oligosaccharides encourage the growth
of beneficial Bacteria in the gut such as Lactobacillus spp.,
Bifidobacterium spp. and Bacteroides spp.

• Feeding FOS helps proliferation of these probiotic

bacteria which inhibit growth of more harmful bacteria
and reduction of flatulence (since FOS are not digested by host
intestinal enzymes) in animals. So these( FOS, MOS) are
termed as prebiotics.
Antioxidants:-

•Fat are subject to oxidation with development of rancidity, which reduces palatability,
and may cause some digestive and nutritional problems.

•Antioxidants are compounds that prevent oxidative rancidity of polyunsaturated

fats.

•Rancidity once develops, may cause destruction of vitamins A, D and E and several
of the B complex vitamins.
•Vitamin E is a natural good antioxidant of vitamin A, carotene and fats.
•The antioxidants which are recommended to prevent rancidity of fat are
DPPD(Diphenyl –para –phenylene-diamine), BHA (Butylated hydroxyl anisole), BHT
(Butylated hydroxy toluene) and Ethoxyquin
Methane inhibitors:
•Methane production could be inhibited by fatty acids and related compounds,
particularly unsaturated fatty acids.
• Other methane inhibitors are chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, chloral
hydrate.sulphites and nitrites, amichloral (very potent) and halogenated methane
analogues.

Propionate production promoters:-

•Ionophores affect principally gram positive bacteria, Ruminococcus albus, R.
flavefaciens. E.g. Monensin, Lasalocid.
Defaunating agents :-
•Examples are copper sulphate, sodium lauryl diethoxy sulphates,
sodium lauryl sulphate, oil rich PUFA and dioctyl sodium
sulphosuccinate

Ketosis controlling agents:- Examples are sodium propionate ,

propylene glycol.

Bloat controlling compounds:- Examples are poloxalene (Bloat guard),

a non-ionic surfactant 10-20g/day.

Microbial growth factors (for ruminants):-

•These include niacin, thiamine, branched chain fatty acids and straight
chain fatty acid.
Surfactants:-
•These act like antibiotics or arsenicals by selective inhibitory effects on intestinal
microorganism.
•Surface –active agents possess the property of stimulating the growth of Chick . e.g.
Alkyl benzene sulfonate, lauryl ethelene oxide , ethmiod C-15.

Pellet Binders :-
•Calcium lignosulphonate, sodium lignosulphonate are byproducts from wood pulp
manufacture.
• These are widely used as pellet binders in animal feeds.
•Lignin is the most widely used feed binder in the world.
•In rabbits lignosulfonate cause ulceration of colon and consequent mortality. Hence it
is not used in pelleting of diets for rabbits. Sodium bentonite at 2 .5 % is used.
•Sepiolite is an effective pellet binder in swine diets especially when diets contained 4
% fat. The others are molasses 5-10%, calcium aluminate 0.6- 1% and guar meal 2.5-
5%.
 TRANQUILLIZERS

 These drugs are used to Combat Stress due to heat or

other environmental factor .

 Certain tranquilizers such as

- natural Alkaloid of Rauwolfia, Reserpin improve
daily live wt. gain to animal.
Acidifiers:-

•Organic acids usually are added only as preservatives, but they do

positively influence performance when included at higher quantities.
•Liquid acidifiers are
e.g. – 1. Formic acid 6-8 kg/ton
2. Propionic acid 8-10 kg per ton.
Organic acid in powder form are 1. Fumaric acid 12-15 kg/ ton and Citric
acid 20-25kg/ton.
Sequestrants:
•Certain metals such as copper and iron are active catalysts of oxidation
(pro-oxidants) and therefore need to be immobilised.
•Sequestrants are the compounds added to do this.
• Sequestrants or sequestering compounds are also referred to as metal
scavengers since they combine with trace metals such as iron and copper
and remove them from solution.
• So these compounds should have affinity to the metal ions
e.g . calcium salt of EDTA ,polyphosphates and
citric acid
Mycotoxin binders:-
• Mycotoxins are diverse group of chemicals that are harmful to
animals and human and have the greatest impact on human and animal
health.
• The three major mycotoxin producing fungi are Aspergillus,
Pusarium and Penicillium and the toxins are aflatoxins, zearalenone,
trichothecenes, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, etc.
• Mycotoxins are stable compounds and , are not easily removed from
finished feeds.
• Mycotoxin binding agents include activated charcoal, yeast cell wall
products, synthetic zeolites and mined mineral clays such as
aluminosilicates, sodium bentonite.
• Effectiveness of these compounds depend upon the adsorptive capacity,
their molecular structure, their purity and the characteristics of the
targeted mycotoxin.
 Cont….
Some Examples:-

a. Zeolites (sodium zeolite A) and aluminosilicates have strong

affinity to aflatoxins and form a stable complex.
1. Hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS) and nutrients
with antioxidant capabilities (Se, methionine and vitamin E).
2, HSCAS and virginiamycin
 Cont…

b. Mycosorb (Mannan oligosaccharides, Alltech

Inc.),
•It is developed by esterifying yeast cell wall glucomannans
(functional carbohydrates) can specifically adsorb aflatoxins,
ochratoxin and fusariotoxins.
•It is used at lower inclusion rate; About 50 g is as effective as 4 kg of
clay.
c. Dietary supplementation of activated carbon
•It reduces the toxic effects of many insecticides, pesticides and other
toxins by adsorption and elimination in the faeces.
Note - it has no effect in reducing the DDT (dichloro-diphenyl
trichloroethane) and dieldrin in milk or body tissue.
Anticaking agents:
•In the preparation of mash type feeds, problem of cake or lump formation is
observed.

•This can be considerably minimized by using certain anticaking agents.

•These are anhydrous substances that can pick up moisture without Themselves
becoming wet.

•They are either anhydrous salts or substances that hold water by surface adhesion
yet themselves remain free flowing. e.g. salts of long chain fatty acids (Calcium
stearate).

•Cal. phosphate, ferrous ammonium citrate, yellow prussiate of soda, potassium and
sodium ferrocyanide, magnesium oxide, kaolin, ball clay, sodium aluminium silicate,
hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS), calcium aluminium silicate.
HSCAS is used at 0.5% level.
Humectants:- These are the substances which are required
to keep the product moist, as for example, bread and cakes.
Example :- Aloe vera gel. Glyceryl , honey, propylene glycol

Firming and crisping agents:

•These are substances that preserve the texture of vegetable
tissues and by maintaining the water pressure inside them,
keep them turgid.

• They prevent loss of water from the tissues.

Preservatives:
•The aim of preservatives is to prevent microbial spoilage.

example:- Nisin, benzoic acid, methyl -4-hydroxybenzoate, ethyl -

4hydroxybenzoate, propyl-4-hydroxybenzoated, sodium nitrate, sodium
nitrite, propionic acid, sorbic acid and sulphur dioxide.

Antifungal agents: Sodium propionate, Sodium benzoate, Nystatin

(antifungal antibiotic).
Flavouring Agents:-

•Flavouring compounds are non volatile waters soluble Substances

which have little or no taste of their own, but modify or potentiate the
flavour of a product

• Flavours are used to improve palatability.

•Mainly used for poultry.

•Commercial f1avouring agents only try to influence sweetness.

example : esters, alcohols, terpens, etc.

Chromium Supplement

• Chromium improves glucose metabolism in swine.

• It is available as chromium picolinate, chromium nicotinate.

•
• It increased muscle and decreased lipid deposition when fed to pigs
of 20 to 105 kg body weight at 200 ppb.
• Greater longissimus muscle area, greater absorption and retention of
nitrogen have been obtained in chromium fed pigs.

• It has been reported that chromium nicotinate is better than

chromium picolinate