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Since there are vast ranges in the properties of rocks, Engineers rely
on a number of basic measurements to describe rocks quantitatively.
These are known as Index Properties.
Index Properties of Rocks:
Porosity- Identifies the relative proportions of solids & voids;
Density- a mineralogical constituents parameter;
Sonic Velocity- evaluates the degree of fissuring;
Permeability- the relative interconnection of pores;
Durability- tendency for eventual breakdown of
components or structures with degradation of rock
quality, and
Strength- existing competency of the rock fabric
binding components.
Engineering Properties of Rocks
Porosity: Proportion of void space given by- n =p/ t , where p is the pore
volume and t is the total volume. Typical values for sandstones are around 15%.
In Igneous and Metamorphic rocks, a large proportion of the pore space (usually <
1-2%) occurs as planar “fissures”.With weathering this increases to > 20%. Porosity
is therefore an accurate index of rock quality.
Density: Rocks exhibit a greater range in density than soils. Knowledge of the rock
density is important to engineering practice. A concrete aggregate with higher than
average density can mean a smaller volume of concrete required for a gravity
retaining wall or dam. Expressed as weight per unit volume.
Sonic Velocity: Use longitudinal velocity Vl measured on
rock core. Velocity depends on elastic properties and density,
but in practice a network of fissures has an overriding effect.
Can be used to estimate the degree of fissuring of a rock
specimen by plotting against porosity (%).
Engineering Properties of Rocks
Strength- Use Point Load Test of Broch and Franklin (1972). Irregular rock or
core samples are placed between hardened steel cones and loaded until failure
by development of tensile cracks parallel to the axis of loading.
IS = P/D2 , where P= load at rupture; D= distance between the point loads and I s
is the point load strength.
The test is standardised on rock cores of 50mm due to the strength/size effect
Relationship between point load index (I s) and unconfined compression strength
is given by: q u =24I s (50) where q u is the unconfined compressive strength, and
I s (50) is the point load strength for 50 mm core.
All of the above are measured on Lab specimens,
not rock masses/ outcrops, which will differ due
to discontinuities at different scales.
Engineering Properties of Rocks
It is assumed that rock masses contain three sets of joints, but the spacing of the
most critical for the application is used.
Condition of joints is treated similarly. Covers the roughness and nature of
coating material on joint surfaces, and should be weighted towards the
smoothest and weakest joint set.
Ground water can exert a significant influence on rock mass behavior. Water
inflows or joint water pressures can be used to determine the rating increment as
either completely dry; moist; water under moderate pressure, or severe water
problems.
Bieniawski recommended that the sum of these ratings
be adjusted to account for favorable or unfavorable joint
orientations. No points are subtracted for very favorable
joint orientations, but 12 points for unfavorable joint
orientations in tunnels, and 25 points in foundations.
Engineering Properties of Rocks
Brittle Failure:
Sudden loss of cohesion across a plane that is not preceded by any appreciable
permanent deformation.
For shear failure, Coulomb’s Law applies: = c + n tan , where = the
shearing stress; c = the apparent cohesion; n = the normal stress and = the
angle of internal friction or shearing resistance. – see diagram.
For triaxial conditions: = 0.5 ( 1 + 3) + 0.5 ( 1 - 3 ) cos 2 and,
= 0.5 ( 1 - 3) sin 2 , where 1 = stress at failure , &
3 = confining pressure .
Substitution for n and in the Coulomb equation :
2c + 3 [sin 2 + tan (1- cos 2)]
1= ---------------------------------------------
sin 2 - tan ( 1 + cos 2)
Engineering Properties of Rocks
Mohr (1882) modified Coulomb’s concept. Mohr’s hypothesis states that when a
rock is subjected to compressive stress, shear fracturing occurs parallel to those two
equivalent planes for which shearing stress is as large as possible whilst the normal
pressure is as small as possible.
Griffith (1920) claimed that minute cracks or flaws, particularly in surface layers
reduced the measured tensile strengths of most brittle materials to less than those
inferred from the values of their molecular cohesive forces. Although the mean
stress throughout the body may be relatively low, local stresses in the vicinity of
flaws were assumed to attain values equal to the theoretical
strength.
Under tensile stress, stress magnification around a flaw is
concentrated where the radius of curvature is smallest,
ie at its end.
Concentration of stress at the ends of flaws causes them
to enlarge and presumably develop into fractures.
Engineering Properties of Rocks
Brace (1964) demonstrated that fracture in hard rocks was usually initiated in
grain boundaries, which can be regarded as inherent flaws under Griffith’s
theory.
Subsequently Hoek (1968) determined that modified Griffith theories while
adequate for prediction of fracture initiation in rocks, could not describe their
propagation and subsequent failure of rocks.
Hoek and Brown (1980) reviewed published data on the strength of intact
rock and developed an empirical equation (subsequently modified in 1997)
that allows preliminary design calculations to be made
without testing, by using an approximate rock type
dependent value (m I ), and determining a value of
unconfined compressive strength.
Lastly we will briefly examine the Deere and Miller
(1966) classification of intact rock.
Engineering Properties of Rocks