Aircraft Instruments

Tachometer

Tachometers show the rate of rotation of the engine’s crankshaft. Aircraft tachometers
frequently incorporate a display showing the total number of hours the engine has run.
 Gyro Suction Gauge

The gauge is mounted in the aircraft’s instrument panel and indicates the
amount of pressure in the system (vacuum is measured in inches of mercury
less than ambient pressure). The amount of vacuum or pressure required for
instrument operation varies, but is usually between 4.5 "Hg and 5.5 "Hg.
 Fuel Pressure Gauge

If a fuel pump is installed in the fuel system, a fuel pressure gauge is also
included. This gauge indicates the pressure in the fuel lines.
Flowmeters in aircraft with fuel injection actually measure the pressure across a
fuel injection nozzle. A plugged nozzle means fuel flow decrease and a nozzle
pressure increase. The gauge interprets this situation as an increase in flow, giving
the pilot erroneous information that is opposite to the actual condition!
 Cylinder Head Temp Gauge

Indicates the temperature of at least one of the cylinder heads. Used to set
the fuel/air mixture.
The most critical heat related hazard is damage to, or failure of, a piston, ring,
or cylinder head.
 Ammeter

The ammeter shows if the alternator/generator is producing an adequate supply of electrical

power. It also indicates whether or not the battery is receiving an electrical charge.

When the pointer of the ammeter is on the plus side, it shows the charging rate of the
battery. A minus indication means more current is being drawn from the battery than is being
replaced. A full-scale minus deflection indicates a malfunction of the alternator/generator. A
full-scale positive deflection indicates a malfunction of the regulator. In either case, consult
the AFM or POH for appropriate action to be taken.
 Oil Pressure Gauge

Oil pressure is measured at the outlet of the engine driven oil pump. The
gauge has two red lines that indicate maximum and minimum permissible
pressure and a green arc that shows normal operating range.
Normally, the pressure should be in the green arc within 30 seconds of
engine start, slightly longer if its very cold outside.
Excessively high pressures leads to oil system failure.
Fuel & Oil Pressure Gauge
 Manifold Pressure Gauge

The Manifold Pressure (M.P.) gauge senses the absolute pressure in the engine
intake manifold.
Power developed is proportional to the amount of fuel burned, which is based on
mass airflow to the cylinders. Airflow is difficult to measure, so intake absolute
pressure is measured instead.
M.P. gauge should read the ambient air pressure when the engine is shut down.
Outside Air Temperature Gauge

Most airplanes also are equipped with an outside air temperature (OAT) gauge
calibrated in both degrees Celsius and Fahrenheit.
It provides the outside or ambient air temperature for calculating true airspeed,
and also is useful in detecting potential icing conditions.
 Magnetic Compass

A magnetic compass aboard an aircraft displays the current magnetic heading

of the aircraft.
The compass can be used in turns to verify that the aircraft is traveling in the
desired direction at the conclusion of a turn.
Cockpit Clock
 Pitot-Static
Instruments
Pitot-Static Instruments
Typical Pitot-Static System
Pitot Static System and Instruments
Pitot Static System and Instruments
Airspeed Indicator
VNE Red Line VSO Stall Speed in the
landing configuration
Never Ecxeed Speed

VS1
Stall Speed

VNO
Maximum Structural Cruising
Speed (do not exceed except in
smooth air) VFE
Maximum Flap Extended Speed
Types of Airspeed
• Indicated Airspeed
• Calibrated Airspeed
• Equivalent Airspeed
• True Airspeed
• Ground Speed
 Types of Airspeed
• Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) is CAS corrected for compression of
the air inside the pitot tube. EAS is the same as CAS in standard
atmosphere at sea level. As the airspeed and pressure altitude
increase, the CAS becomes higher than it should be, and a
correction for compression must be subtracted from the CAS.

• Maneuvering Speed (VA) is the maximum speed at which full or

abrupt control movements may be used without overstressing the
airframe.
 10,000’ Pointer
1,000’ Pointer
Barometric
Scale
(Kollsman Window)

100’ Pointer
Altimeter Setting Knob
Drum-Type Altimeter
Altimeter
Types of Altitude

• Indicated Altitude
• True Altitude
• Absolute Altitude
• Pressure Altitude
• Density Altitude
 Altimeter Errors
• Instrument Error
• Pressure Changes
– High press. to Low press. (reads High)
– Low press. to High press. (reads Low)
• Temperature Error
– HALT, High Altimeter because of Low Temp
 Vertical Speed Indicator

Both the inside of this aneroid and the inside of the instrument case are vented to the static system,
but the case is vented through a calibrated orifice that causes the pressure inside the case to change
more slowly than the pressure inside the aneroid.

As the aircraft climbs, the diaphragm contracts and the pressure drops faster than the case pressure
can escape through the restrictor, resulting in climb indications; the reverse is true during descent. If
level flight is resumed, pressure equalizes in the case and diaphragm within six to nine seconds and
the pointer returns to zero rate of climb.
Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator

The instantaneous vertical-speed indicator incorporates acceleration pumps to eliminate the

limitations associated with the calibrated leak. For example, during climb entry, vertical acceleration
causes the pumps to supply extra air into the diaphragm to stabilize the pressure differential without
the usual lag time. During the level flight and steady rate climbs and descents, the instrument
operates on the same principles as the earlier conventional type.
Blocked Pitot Tube, But Clear Drain Hole
 Blocked Pitot System
With Clear Static System
Blocked Static System
Effects of blocked pitot-static sources
Gyroscopic Instruments
 Venturi
Tube
System

The two attitude instruments

operate on approximately 4" Hg of
suction; the turn-and-slip indicator
needs only 2" Hg, so a pressure-
reducing needle valve is used to
decrease the suction.
A Venturi tube mounted outside of an aircraft. In this system, ice can clog the
Venturi tube and stop the instruments when they are most needed.
 Single Engine Instrument Vacuum System (Wet Type Pump)

Filtered air enters the instrument cases

from a central air filter. Enough air is
drawn into the instrument cases to spin
the gyros at a sufficiently high speed.

This spring-loaded valve draws in just enough

air to maintain the required low pressure inside
the instruments,

The vanes in these pumps are lubricated by

a small amount of engine oil metered into
the pump and discharged with the air.
Vacuum System
Twin-Engine Instrument Pressure System Using a Carbon-Vane
Dry-Type Air Pump.

The check valve isolates

the inoperative system and
the instruments are driven
by air from the operating
system.
 Attitude Indicator 10°
Pointer
20°
Miniature 30°
Airplane
45°

60°

90°

Pitch Angle
Indicator
Adjustment
Artificial Horizon
Knob
Attitude Indicator
 Heading Indicator
Miniature
Airplane Compass
Card

Heading Indicator must be periodically set every

15 minutes to agree with the magnetic compass
Heading Indicator
 Turn Coordinator
Miniature
Airplane

Level
Index

Turn
Index Inclinometer
 Turn
Coordinator
 Standard-Rate Turn
• A turn of 3° per second. A complete 360° turn takes 2 minutes.
• A rule of thumb for determining the approximate bank angle
required for a standard-rate turn is to divide the true airspeed by
10 and add one-half the result.

• For example, at 120 knots, approximately 18° of bank is required

(120 10 = 12 + 6 = 18).

• At 200 knots, it would take approximately 30° of bank for a

standard-rate-turn.
 Magnetic Compass

The case is filled with an acid- A flexible diaphragm prevents damage

free white kerosene that helps or leakage when the fluid expands and
to dampen oscillations of the contracts with temperature changes,
float and lubricate the pivot
assembly.

Compensating magnets are located within the case to correct

the compass reading for the effects of small magnetic fields
generated by components of the aircraft
Electronic Flight Displays
Electronic Flight Displays (EFD)
• In addition to the improvement in system reliability, which increases
overall safety, electronic flight displays (EFD) have decreased the
overall cost of equipping aircraft with state-of-the-art
instrumentation.

• Primary electronic instrumentation packages are less prone to

failure than their analogue counterparts.

• Multi-panel digital flight displays combine all flight instruments onto

a single screen which is called a primary flight display (PFD). The
traditional “six pack” of instruments is now displayed on one liquid
crystal display (LCD) screen.
Primary Flight Display (PFD)
Multi-Function Display (MFD)
 Air Data Computer (ADC)
• The ADC computes the difference between
the total pressure and the static pressure,
and generates the information necessary to
display the airspeed on the PFD.

• Outside air temperatures are also monitored

and introduced into various components
within the system, as well as being displayed
on the PFD screen.

• Altitude information is derived from the static

pressure port. The ADC computes the
received barometric pressure and sends a
digital signal to the PFD to display the proper
altitude readout.
 Attitude and Heading Reference System
(AHRS)
• Electronic flight displays have replaced free-spinning
gyros with solid-state laser systems that are capable of
flight at any attitude without tumbling.

• The heading information is derived from a magnetometer

which senses the earth’s lines of magnetic flux. This
information is then processed and sent out to the PFD to
generate the heading display.

• The AHRS sends attitude information to the PFD in order

to generate the pitch and bank information of the attitude
indicator.