LEARNING FROM OTHERS

AND REVIEWING THE

LITERATURE (CONT.)
BY GROUP 4
 WHAT IS RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS?

• The American Heritage Dictionary defines

a hypothesis as, "a tentative explanation for an
observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can
be tested by further investigation."
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

- States the existence of relationship between two or more variables.

Example: ‘there is relationship between smoking & incidence of lung

cancer.
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
SIMPLE HYPOTHESIS
- a statement which reflects the relationship between
two variables.

Example: ‘The lower the level of hemoglobin, the higher is the risk of
infection among postpartum women’
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
COMPLEX HYPOTHESIS
- a statement which reflects the relationship between
more than two variables.

Example: ‘Satisfaction is higher among patients who are older and

dwelling in rural area than those who are younger and dwelling in
urban area’
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
ASSOCIATIVE HYPOTHESIS
- reflects relationships between variables that occurs
or exists in natural settings without manipulation.

Examples of associative Prediction

hypothesis
Communication skills of health care Predicts relationship among variables
providers & cost of care related to but not the type of relationship.
the satisfaction of patients.
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
CAUSAL HYPOTHESIS
- Predicts the cause-and-effect relationship between two or more dependent &
independent variables in experimental or interventional setting, where independent variable is
manipulated by research to examine the effect on the dependent variable. Reflects the
measurement of dependent variable to examine the effect of dependent variable, which is
manipulated by the researcher(s).
Example: ‘Prevalence of pin site infection is lower in patients who receive pin site care with
hydrogen proxidide as compared to patients who receive the pin site care with Betadine
solution.
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS
- States the nature of the relationship between two or more variables
such as positive, negative, or no relationship. To express directional relationship
between variables, the directional terms are used to state the hypothesis such as
positive, negative, less, more, increased, decreased, great or higher, lower, etc.

Example: ‘there is a positive relationship between years of nursing

experience & job satisfaction among nurses.
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

NONDIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS
- Reflects the relationship between two or more variables, but it
does not specify the anticipated direction & nature of relationship such as
positive or negative. Indicates the existence of relationship between the
variables.

Example: ‘there is relationship between years of nursing

experience & job satisfaction among nurses.
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

NULL HYPOTHESIS
- Also known as statistical hypothesis & is used for statistical
testing & interpretation of statistical outcomes. States the existence of no
relationship between the independent & dependent variables.

Example: ‘there is no relationship between smoking & the

incidence of coronary artery disease’.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS
- Variables and sub-variables or values in
conceptual framework are defined, except very
common variables like grade level, gender, school
type where the values are indicated in the
framework itself.
 FORMAT: DEFINITION OF TERMS

[Conceptual definition – original author’s qualitative definition.]

- Terms defined operationally are variables measured using

instruments, e.g., test or rating scale.

Example: Millennials’ attitude – total rating in a rating scale.

UNDERSTANDING DATA AND
WAYS TO SYSTEMATICALLY
COLLECT DATA
BY GROUP 4
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
• Research Design - refers to the overall plan and scheme for conducting
the study. Thus, the researcher may utilize a historical design, descriptive
design or an experimental design.
• Experimental Research Design - they are also known as longitudinal or
repeated-measure studies. They are also referred to as interventions, because
you do more than just observe the subjects. It uses the scientific method to
establish the cause and effect among a group of variables that make up a
study.
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
• Historical Research Design - the purpose of this research is to collect, verify
and synthesize evidence from the past to establish facts that defend or refute
your hypothesis.
• Descriptive Research Design - the purpose of this design is to describe the
status of an identified variable such as events, people or subjects as they exist. It
usually makes some type of comparison, contrasts, correlation and sometimes, in
carefully planned and orchestrated descriptive researches, cause and effect
relationships may be established to some extent.
 SAMPLING
• Sample is the subset of the population. The process of selecting a sample is known
as sampling. Number of elements in the sample is the sample size. The difference lies between
the above two is whether the sample selection is based on randomization or not. Is the
process of getting information from a proper subset of population.
• The fundamental purpose of all sampling plans is to describe the population characteristics
through the values obtained from a sample as accurately as possible. It is therefore evident that
if one were to draw conclusions based on a small sample then the sample must imitate the
behavior or characteristics of the original population as closely as possible.
 SAMPLE
Sample
A more advanced A subgroup of the target population
research process is to that the researcher plans to study for
generalizing about the target
select individuals or population.
schools who are
representative of the
population. Target Population
A group of individuals with some
Representative refers to common defining characteristic that
the researcher can identify and study
the selection of
individuals as sample of
a population such that Population
the sample are typical a group of individuals who have the
of the population under same characteristic
study, enabling you to
draw conclusions from
the sample about the
population as a whole
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
• It refers to a sampling technique in which samples are
obtained using some objective chance mechanism, thus
involving randomization. They require the use of a sampling
frame. The probabilities of selection are known.
• It is the only approach that makes possible representative
sampling plans.
FOUR METHODS OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING Taking every kth element in

Drawing randomly from a list the population as a sample,
of the population (e.g.: names where
𝑁
from a hat, using a matrix of 𝑘=
random numbers). 𝑛
FOUR METHODS OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

STRATIFIED RANDOM
CLUSTER SAMPLING
SAMPLING
a process in which certain
subgroups, or strata, are The selection of groups, or
selected for the sample in clusters, of subjects rather
the same proportion as they than individuals
exist in the population
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
• This is a technique when there is no way of
estimating the probability that each element has of
being included in the sample and no assurance that
every element has a chance of being included.
FOUR METHODS OF NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING

QUOTA SAMPLING

CONVENIENCE SAMPLING The number of samples is

decided by the researcher
and selection is also made
is selecting a group of
out of availability of the
individuals who are respondent.
conveniently available
for study
FOUR METHODS OF NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING

SNOWBALL SAMPLING

PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
One sample leads on to
Using researcher’s judgment more of the same kind of
to select a sample that they sample.
believe, based on prior
information, will provide the
data they need.
 STEPS IN SAMPLING PROCESS
An operational sampling process can be divided into seven steps as given below:
• Defining the target population.
• Specifying the sampling frame.
• Specifying the sampling unit.
• Selection of the sampling method.
• Determination of sample size.
• Specifying the sampling plan.
• Selecting the sample.
NOW LET’S PLAY A GAME!