Unit 1

Soil Mechanics
UNIT 1
SOIL INTER RELATIONS
SOIL INTER RELATIONS
Nature of Soil – Problems with soil – Phase relation –
Sieve analysis – Sedimentation Analysis – Atterberg limits
– Classification for engineering purposes – BIS
Classification system – Soil compaction – Factors
affecting compaction – Field compaction methods and
monitoring.
 Soil Mechanics is defined as the branch of engineering science
which enables an engineer to know theoretically or experimentally
the behavior of soil under the action of ;
1. Loads (static or dynamic),
2. Gravitational forces,
3. Water and,
4. Temperature.
 *According to Terzaghi (1948): "Soil Mechanics is the

application of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering
problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated
accumulations of solid particles produced by the mechanical and
chemical disintegration of rocks regardless of whether or not they
contain an admixture of organic constituent."
Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
1. Foundation to support Structures and Embankments
2. Construction Material
3. Slopes and Landslides
4. Earth Retaining Structures
5. Special Problems
• Effects of static loading on soil mass
• Shear failure of the foundation soil
• Settlement of structures
• Stability criteria (Solution)
• There should be no shear failure of the foundation soil.
• The settlement should remain within permissible limits.
• Firm Soil -> Spread Footing (Spread Foundation)

• Soft Soil -> Pile Foundation (Vertical members transferring load of structure to
ground i.e. rock)
Examples:
Shear Failure of Soil
• Effects of dynamic loading on soil mass
• For Design and construction of roads following must be considered:
• Compaction Characteristics
• Moisture Variation
2. Construction Material
• Subgrade of highway pavement
• Land reclamation
• Earthen dam
3. Slopes and Landslides
• Major cause is the moisture variation resulting in;
• Reduction of shear strength
• Increase of moisture
• Increase in unit weight
• Excavation of trenches for buildings require braced excavation.
Landslide of a
parking area at the
edge of a steep slope,
mainly due to
increase in moisture
content.
4. Earth Retaining Structures
• Earth retaining structure (e.g., Retaining walls) are constructed to retains
(holds back) any material (usually earth) and prevents it from sliding or
eroding away.
5. Special Problems
i. Effects of river water on soil mass
a) Scouring
Causes:
• Increased flow velocity due to obstruction
• Fineness of river bed material
Stability criteria:
• The foundation of pier must be below the scour depth
ii. Land Erosion

Soil under
the action
of water
(Scouring)
Soil
subjected
to action
of water
(Erosion).
5. Special Problems
iii. Effects of frost action on soil mass
• Reduction Of Shear Strength
• Settlement Of Structure In Summer
• Lifting Up Of Structure In Winter
Causes:
• Heaving (due to formation of ice lenses)
• Increase of moisture due to thawing (MELTING)
Soil subjected to low temperature (Frost action)

 Perform Engineering Soil Surveys
 Develop suitable Soil Sampling Devices and Methods
 Develop suitable Soil Testing Devices and Methods
 Determine Physical Properties of Soil
 Evaluation and Interpretation of Test results and their
application to the use of soil as foundation support
 Behavior of Soil under Loads and Forces
 Adopt suitable Soil Conservation Techniques
 Sedimentation Control of Dam Reservoirs
 Select site for disposal of solid waste (i.e land fills) and to deal
with their Design, Operation and Post Completion Problems of
Landfills
 Physical Weathering
 Chemical Weathering
 Rock Cycle
 Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks by
physical and chemical process into smaller particles.
 There are two main types of weathering processes:

 Physical (or mechanical) Weathering
 Chemical Weathering
 Biological weathering is caused by activities of living

organisms - for example, the growth of roots or the
burrowing of animals. Tree roots are probably the most
occurring, but can often be by animals!
 Physical (or mechanical) Weathering is the disintegration
of rocks into smaller particles through physical
processes, including:
 The erosive action of water, ice and wind.
 Opening of cracks as a result of unloading due to
erosion of overlying soil and rock.
 Loosening through the percolation and subsequent
freezing (and expansion) of water.
 Thermal Expansion and contraction from day to
day and season to season.
 Landslides and rockfalls.
 Abrasion from the downhill movement of nearby
rock and soil.
 Chemical Weathering is the disintegration of rock
through chemical reactions between the minerals in the
rocks, water, and oxygen in the atmosphere.
All rock at or near Earth's surface is
being modified by the processes of m
etamorphism, melting,
crystallization, lithification and
weathering. These processes move
rock material through the states of met
amorphic rock, igneous
rock, sedimentary rock, melts and
sediment. The natural and
continuous cycling of rock
materials through these states is
known as the Rock Cycle.
 What is Soil?
 Formation of Soil
 Types of Soil
 Geological
Consideration
 Engineering
Consideration
What is Soil?(Definition)
 The term soil according to engineering point of view
is defined as the material, by means of which and
upon which engineers build their structures. The term
soil includes entire thickness of the earth’s crust (from
ground surface to bed rock), which is accessible and
feasible for practical utilization as foundation support
or construction material. It is composed of loosely
bound mineral particles of various sizes and shapes
formed due to weathering of rocks.
Formation of Soil
 Soil is generally formed by disintegration and decomposition
(weathering) of rocks through the action of physical (or mechanical)
and chemical agents which break them into smaller and smaller
particles.
Different stages of
weathering of rocks and
formation of soil.
Types of Soil
 Soil types, based on geological and engineering view points, are
separately discussed below:
1. Geological consideration:
The history of formation of a soil deposit, greatly influence
its properties and behaviour. The properties of soil highly
depend on the process through which the soil deposits have been
developed. Following are the types of soil based on the
geological agents or the processes through which the soil
deposits have been developed.
i. Glacial Soil: This type of soil is developed, transported and
deposited by the actions of glaciers. These deposits consists
of rocks fragments, boulders, gravels, sand, silt and clay in
various proportions (i.e., a heterogeneous mixture of all
sizes of particles).
Types of Soil
ii. Residual Soil: This type of soil is found on nearly flat rock
surfaces were the weathering action has produced a soil
with a little or no tendency to move. Residual soil also
occurs when the rate of weathering is higher than the rate
of removal.
iii. Alluvial Soil: The soil transported and deposited by water
is called alluvial soil. As flowing water (stream or river)
looses velocity, it tends to deposit some of particles that it
was carrying in suspension or by rolling, sliding or
skipping along the river bed. Coarser or heavier particles
are dropped first. Hence on the higher reaches of a river,
gravel and sand are found. However on the lower parts, silt
and clay dominate where the flow velocity is almost zero
or very small.
Types of Soil
iv. Wind blown Soil or Aeolian Soil: The soil transported by
the geological agent ‘wind’ and subsequently deposited is
known as wind blown soil or Aeolian Soil. Aeolian soil as
two main types namely Dune sand and Loess.
a) Dune or Dune Sand: In arid parts of the world, wind is
continually forming sand deposits in the form of dunes
characterized by low hill and ridge formation. They
generally occur in deserts and comprise of sand particles,
which are fairly rounded and uniform in size. The particles
of the dune sand are coarser than the particles of loess.
Dune material is generally, a good source of sand for
construction purposes.
Sand dunes fill this view of the desert in Qatar.
Types of Soil
b) Loess: Accumulations of wind blown dust (mainly
siliceous silt or silty clay) laid down in a loose condition is
known as loess. Silt soil in arid regions have no moisture
to bond the particles together and are very susceptible to
the effects of wind and therefore can be carried great
distances by wind storms. An important engneering
property of loess is its low density and high permeability.
Saturated loess is very weak and always causes foundation
problems e.g., liquefaction.
v. Colluvial Soil: The accumulation formed by the rock
fragments and soil material resulting from the mechanical
weathering of rocks is known as colluvial soil. This type of
soil is formed more or less in situ or as a result of trasport
by gravity over a short distance.
Types of Soil
2. Engineering consideration :
The types of soil based on engineering consideration depend on the
particle size. Since the engineering properties of soil markedly change
with the change of particle size, different names are assigned to
particular ranges of particle sizes. The soil types based on MIT
classification are as follows:
i. Clay: ( < .002mm): It is composed of very fine particles, less than
.002 mm in size. They are flaky in shape and therefore have
considerable surface area. These surfaces carry electrical charge,
which helps in understanding the engineering properties of clay soils.
In moist condition, clay becomes sticky and can be rolled into
threads. Due to electrical charge, clay shows high inter-particle
attraction and thus exhibits sufficient cohesion. It has high dry
strength, low erosion, low permeability, good workability under moist
condition, and can be readily compacted. Also susceptible to
shrinkage and swelling. Clay soils commonly have brown colour.
Types of Soil
ii. Silt: (.002mm < Size < .06mm)
It is composed of very fine particles ranging in size between
.002 and .06mm. It has high capillarity, no plasticity and very
low dry strength. It possesses properties of both clay and sand,
i.e. it shows slight cohesion and also friction. The colour of
silty soil is mostly brown.
iii. Sand: (.06mm < Size < 2mm)
It consists of particles ranging in size from .06 and 2mm. It
has a grey colour. These particles may be rounded to angular in
shape. It shows no plasticity, high strength in a confined state
and has considerable frictional resistance. It has high
permeability and low capillarity. Sand is the most wanted
construction material. Abundant quantities of sand are available
in deserts and riverbeds.
Types of Soil
iv. Gravels: (2mm < Size < 60mm)
They consists of particles varying in size from 2mm to 60mm.
They form a good foundation material. They show high
frictional resistance. The frictional resistance depends upon the
particle size and shape. The gravels produced by crushing of
rocks are angular in shape, while those taken from river beds
are sub-rounded to rounded. They show very high permeability.
When sand and silt are mixed with gravels their bearing
capacity is further increased but permeability may be
decreased.
v. Cobbles and Boulders:
Particles larger than gravels are commonly known as cobbles
and boulders. Cobbles generally range in size from 60mm t0
200mm. The material larger than 200mm is designated as
boulders.
Types of Soil
vi. Organic Matter:
The main source of organic matter is the plants or animal
remains that are added to the soil when these organism die.
Plants decompose at a slower rate than the animal remains.
Commonly about 12” of the soil from top surface has a major
concentration of organic matter. It undergoes large volume
changes under loads and contains high natural moisture
content. The strength of soil is very much reduced when the
concentration of organic matter is more than 2% and the soil is
considered unsuitable for foundation support.
The soil types based on the grain size limits according to

ASTM and AASHTO are given in the following table.
Types of Soil
Table: Nomenclature of material (soil type) & range of sizes
Types of Soil
The nomenclature for the materials assigned to the grain-size
limits adopted by the ASTM (American Society for Testing and
Materials) as given in the Table above, has been used in the
unified soil classification system. The AASHTO soil
classification system however, follows the nomenclature
established by the AASHTO (American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials) for the classification of
soils.
PHASE DIAGRAMS
Soil mass consist of solid particles, water, air. In soil mass
volume of solid particles is highest. The voids may be
filled of water or air.
SOME ASSUMPTIONS ARE MADE
 Mass of air in soil is zero.
 All soil particles are of same size.
 Moisture is uniformly distributed.
PHASE DIAGRAMS
THREE PHASE DIAGRAM
In this case soil is partially dry and partially
saturated. Here,
Va=volume of air
Vw=volume of water
Vs=volume of solids
Vt=total volume of soil
From fig;
Vt=Vs+Vw+Va
Similarly;
Mt=Ms+Mw+Ma (but Ma=0)
Mt=Ms+Mw
W = Wd+Ww+Wa
W=Wd+Wv (Wv = Ww+Wa) (but Wa=0)
W= Wd+Ww
TWO PHASE DIAGRAM FOR FULLY DRY SOIL
In this case ,two phases ,solids and air are
present. Water is absent and void are filled
with the air.
From, fig;
Va AIR Wa
V=Vs+Va
Now, W
SOLIDS
Ws
Vs
W  Wa  Ws but; Wa  0
W  Ws
TWO PHASE DIAGRAM FOR FULLY SAURATED
SOIL
In this case two phases , solid , water are
present. Air is absent. Voids are filled
with water only.
V  Vv  Vs Vw Ww
WATER
but , Vv  Vw
W
V  Vw  Vs
Similarly, SOILDS
W  Wv  Ws Vs
Ws
but , Wv  Ww
W  Ww  Ws
FUNDAMENTAL DEFINATION
1. WATER CONTENT OR MOISTURE CONTENT
 The water content is defined as the ratio of mass of water to the
mass of soils.
 Water content=(weight of water / weight of dry soil)*100%

Mw
w *100%
Ms
or
Mw
w *100%
Md
VOLUME - MASS RELATIONSHIP
Density: defined as the mass of the soil per unit volume
1)BULK DENSITY (b)

The bulk density is defined as the total mass per unit
volume.
b =  = (M/V)
 It is expressed as kg/m³.
 1cm³ = 1ml
2)DRY DENSITY (d)
The dry density is defined as the mass of solids per unit total
volume.
d =(Md /V) = (Ms /V)….. Kg/m³
3.Density of solids (s )
 The density of solids is the mass of soil solids (Md) per unit
volume of solids (Vs)
s =(Md /Vs)
4.SATURATED DENSITY
 The saturated density is the bulk density of soil when it is fully
saturated.
sat = (Msat / V) ….. Kg/m³
5.SUBMERGED DENSITY
 When the soil exist below water , it is in a submerged
condition. When a volume v of soil is submerged in water, it
displaces an equal volume of water. Thus the net mass of soil
when submerged is reduced.
 The submerged density of the soil is defined as the submerged
mass per unit total volume.
 sub=’= (m sub /v) = (sat -w)
 Unit weight of soil mass:
 Unit weight of a soil mass is defined as its weight per unit volume
 6. BULK UNIT WEIGHT ( )  b

 Bulk unit weight is defined as the total weight of soil mass per unit of
total volume.
 Bulk unit weight = (total weight of soil mass / total volume of soil
mass) * 100 %
W
b   N/m 3 or kN/m 3
V
7.DRY UNIT WEIGHT ( d )
Dry unit weight is defined as the weight of soil solids per unit of total
volume of the soil mass.
Dry unit weight = (total weight of soil solids / total volume of soil mass)
* 100%
Wd
γd   kN/m 3
V
. When
8 SATURATED UNIT WEIGHT (γ ) SAT
soil mass is saturated, its bulk unit weight is called the
saturated unit weight.
 Saturated unit weight = ( total weight of saturated soil mass /
total volume of soil mass )
 γsat = (Wsat / V)… k N/m³
9. UNIT WEIGHT OF SOLIDS(γs)

•Unit weight of solids is the ratio of weight of solids to the
volume of solids.
Ws
s 
Vs
10. SUBMERGED UNIT WEIGHT (γsub OR γ)
 Submerged unit weight is defined as the ratio of submerged
weight of soil solids to the total volume of the soil mass.
 Submerged unit weight = (submerged weight of soil solids /
total volume of soil mass)
(Wd ) sub
 sub   kN/m 3
 When dry soil isVsubmerged in water, it displaces an equal
volume of water. Thus the net weight of soil is reduced.
 sub   sat   w   '

where,
 w  unit weigh t of water  10 kN/m 3
Inter conversion between density and unit
weight
11. SPECIFIC GRAVITY (G)
 Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given
volume of soil solids to the weight of an equal volume of
distilled water.
 Specific gravity = (weight of a given volume of soil solid /
weight of an equal volume of distilled water)
Ws  s
G  no unit
Ww  w
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
 GRAVEL 2.65 - 2.68

 SAND 2.65 - 2.68
 SILTY SAND 2.66 - 2.70
 SILTS 2.66 - 2.70
 INORGANIC CLAYS 2.70 – 2.80
 ORGANIC SOILS VARIABLE, MAY FALL BELOW 2.0
 SOILS HIGH IN MICA, IRON 2.75 - 2.85
12. VOID RATIO (e)
 It is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume
of solids. Expressed as fraction
 Void ratio = (volume of voids / volume of solids)
 e = Vv/Vs .
13. POROSITY(n)
 It is defined as the ratio of volume of voids to the total volume.
Expressed as percentage
 Porosity = (volume of voids/ total volume)
n = (Vv/V)
14. DEGREE OF SATURATION(Sr)
 It is defined as the ratio of the volume of water to the volume
of voids.
 Degree of saturation = ( volume of water / volume of voids)
 S = (Vw/Vv)
 In case of fully saturated soil, voids are completely filled with
water. There is no air.
 Vw = Vv
S = 1
 In case of fully dry soil, voids are completely filled with air.
There is no water.
 Vw =0
 S=0.
15. AIR CONTENT(ac)
 It is defined as the ratio of the volume of air to the volume
of voids.
 Air content = (volume of air/ volume of voids)
ac = (Va/Vv)
Va = Vv-Vw, so ac = 1 - S
16. PERCENTAGE AIR VOIDS(na)
•It is defined as the ratio of the volume of air to the total
volume.
•Percentage air voids = (volume of air/ total volume )
na = (Va/V) * 100
It is represented as a percentage.
17. DENSITY INDEX OR RELATIVE DENSITY
 The density index is defined as,
ID = (emax – e / emax – emin)
Where,
emax = void ratio in the loosest state
emin = void ratio in the densest state
e = natural void ratio of the deposit
 This term is used for cohesion less soils only.
 When the natural state of the cohesionless soil is in
the loosest form,
emax= e.
FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS
If volume of void is taken as
“e”, the volume of solids
VOIDS e
by definition of porosity
will be “1” and total
volume is “1+e”. 1+e
1
SOLIDS
Vv e
n  
V 1 e
If volume of voids is taken as “n”,
the volume of solids, by
definition of void ratio will be
“1-n” and total volume equal to VOIDS n
“1”.
1
Vv n
e  
Vs 1  n SOLIDS 1-n
combining the above two eqution we get,
e e
n  e(1  n) ( n  )
1 e 1 e
1
 (1 - n) 
1 e
RELATION BETWEEN e,G,w& Sr
Fig shows the soil element.
Where, ew = water void ratio
e = void ratio
Vs=1= volume of solids AIR
We, know
e
M w  w . Vw WATER ew
w  (A) 1+e
Ms s . Vs
1
Now,
s
SOLIDS
Vw
S & G  s  G  w
Vv w
(1) (2)
putting the value of equ. (1) & (2) in equ. (A)
 w . S Vv S Vv S
w    e
 w .G Vs G Vs G
Se  wG
In case of fully saturated soil S=1. So, e=w G
(G  e . Sr )  w
b 
DERIVE : 1 e
We know that,
W Ws  Ww
b  
V V
 s . Vs   w .Vw Ws Ww
 b  (  s  &w  )
V Vs Vw
 s .1   w .ew
 b   from fig Vs  1, Vw  ew , V  1  e
1 e
Now,
G. w  ew . w s
b  ( G  & e w  e.Sr )
1 e w
(G  ew ) w
b 
1 e
(G  e.S r ) w
 b 
1 e
 If soil is fully dry, Sr  0 and  b   d
G. w
 d 
1 e
 If soil is fully saturated, Sr  1 and  b   sat
(G  e) w
  sat 
1 e
b
 dry 
DERIVE : 1 w
We know that,
Mt Ms  Mw
b  
V V
M s  wM s Mw
 b  ( w  )
V Ms
M s (1  w) Ms
 b  But,  dry 
V V
 b   dry .(1  w)
b
  dry 
(1  w)
DETERMINATION OF INDEX PROPERTIES
OF SOIL
Those properties of soil which are used in the
identification and classification of soil are known as
INDEX PROPERTIES.
• Various index properties of soils are:-
a. Water content
b. In-situ density
c. Specific gravity
d. Particle size
e. Consistency
f. Density index
METHODS OF WATER CONTENT
DETERMINATION
The water content can be determined by any of the
given methods:-
a) Oven drying method
b) Sand bath method
c) Alcohol method
d) Calcium carbide method
e) Nuclear probe method
f) Pycnometer method
g) Infra-red method
SAND BATH METHOD
This is a field method of determining rough value of the
water content. The container with the soil is placed on a
sand bath. Heated over a kerosene stove. The soil become
dry within ½ to 1 hrs. It should not be used for organic
soil or soil containing higher percentage of gypsum.
Water contain can be determined as;
M2  M3
w * 100%
M 3  M1
Where, M1= mass of empty container
M2= mass of container + wet soil
M3= mass of container + dry soil
OVEN DRYING METHOD
Equipments:-
• Containers
• Desiccator with any suitable desiccating agent
• Thermostatically controlled oven
• Weighing balance with accuracy of 0.01 gm.
PROCEDURE:-
1. Clean the container, dry it and weight it with the lid. (W1)
2. Take the required quantity of the wet soil specimen in the
container & weight it with the lid.(W2)
3. Place the container with its lid removed, in the oven till its
weight become constant.
4. When the soil has dried, remove the container from the oven
using tongs.
5. Find the weight W3 of the container with the lid and the dry
soil sample.
Now, water content can be calculated as;
M2  M3
w *100 %
M 3  M1
•The specific gravity of solids is frequently required for computation of
several soil properties such as void ratio, degree of saturation, unit weigh
of solids, fine soil particle size, etc.
•Laboratory using the following methods:
1. Pycnometer bottle method
2. Density bottle method
3. Measuring flask method
4. Gas jar method
5. Shrinkage limit method
PYCNOMETER BOTTLE METHOD
1. Clean and dry the pycnometer. Find its mass with cap
as M1.
2. Place about 200 gm of oven dried soil passing
through 4.75 mm sieve.
3. Determine mass of pycnometer with dry soil as M2.
4. Add sufficient amount of de-aired water to the soil in
the pycnometer. Thoroughly mix it. Determine mass
of pycnometer with soil and water as M3.
5. Empty the pycnometer, clean it and wipe it try.
6. Fill the pycnometer with distilled water and find its
mass as M4.
7. Now, calculate the specific gravity of soil solids as
under :
G = (M2-M1) / (M4-M1) – (M3-M2)
DETERMINATION OF DRY DENSITY BY
CORE CUTTER
1. Measure the inside dimensions of the core cutter
2. Determine empty weight of core cutter ( W1)
3. Level the surface, about 300 mm square in area.
3. Place the dolly over the top of the core cutter and press the core
cutter into the soil mass using the rammer.
4. Stop the process of pressing when about 15 mm of the dolly
protrudes above the soil surface.
5. Remove the soil surrounding the core cutter and take out the
core cutter.
6. Remove the dolly. Trim the top and bottom surface of the core
cutter carefully using a straight edge.
7. Weight the core cutter filled with the soil (W2).
8. Remove the core of the soil from the cutter. Determine the
water content.
DETERMINATION OF FIELD DRY-DENSITY
 The test procedure is divided in to two parts.
1. Calibration of cylinder.
2. Determination of bulk density of the soil.
PART – 1 : Calibration of cylinder

1. Fill the sand pouring cylinder with sand, within
about 10 mm from its top. Determine the weight of
cylinder with sand and lid (W1) gm.
2. Place the sand-pouring cylinder vertically on the
calibrating container.
3. Lift the pouring cylinder, weigh the sand collected
in the tray used in filling the cone as (W2).
4. Weigh the pouring cylinder with sand (W3) after
filling the cone and the calibration container.
5. Weight of sand in the calibration container Ws =
W1 – W2 –W3
PART – 2 : Determination of bulk density of soil:
1. Expose an area of about 450 mm × 450 mm on the surface of the soil
mass. Trim the surface down to a level surface, using scraper tool.
2. Place the metal tray on the levelled surface surface.
3. Excavate the soil through the central hole of the tray. The depth of the
excavated hole should be about 150 mm.
4. Collect all the excavated soil in a metal tray and weigh it as W4.
5. Now place the sand pouring cylinder in the metal tray over the excavated
hole. Remember that weight of sand pouring cylinder with sand at this
time is W3.
6. Allow the sand to run out of the cylinder by opening the shutter. Close the
shutter when the hole is completely filled and no further movement of
sand is observed.
7. Weigh the sand pouring cylinder with sand and lid as W5.
8.Weigh of sand in the excavated hole W6 = W3 – W2 – W5
9. Density of sand in hole = weight of sand in hole / volume of hole
volume of hole = weight of sand in hole / density of sand in hole
v = W6 / s
10. Bulk density of soil = weight of soil collected from hole / volume of hole
b = W4 / V
11. Determine water content of soil collected from the hole as w.
12. Dry density of soil, d = b / 1 + w.
RELATIVE DENSITY
The relative density is generally used to indicated the in
situ (on site) denseness or looseness of soil. It is define by;
emax  e
Dr 
emax  emin
where, e max  void ratio of the soil in loosest state
e min  void ratio of the soil in the densest state
e  void ratio for in situ.
 max  d   min
ID  ( )
 d  max   min
M min
here,  min 
Vm
M min  mass of dry soil
Vm  volume of mould
similarly;
M max
 max 
Vm
 Soil Classification
 To classify the soil into a group according to the soil

behavior and physical shape.
 Soil classification is adopting a formal system of soil

description and classification in order to describe the
various materials found in ground investigation.
 Such a system must be meaningful and concise in an

engineering context, so that engineers will be able to
understand and interpret.
 What is soil description?
 Description of soil is a statement that describes the

physical nature and state of the soil. It can be a description
of a sample, or a soil in situ. It is arrived at by using visual
examination, simple tests, observation of site conditions,
geological history, etc.
 What is soil Classification?
 Classification of soil is the separation of soil into classes

or groups each having specific characteristics and
potentially specific behavior.
 A classification for engineering purposes should be based

mainly on mechanical properties: permeability, stiffness,
strength.
 The aim of a classification system is to establish a set of
conditions which will allow useful comparisons to be
made between different soils.
 The relevant criteria for classifying soils are the size

distribution of particles and the plasticity of the soil.
 PURPOSE:
To classified the soil into a group according to the soil behavior
and physical shape
 TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION:
 Classification by visual
 AASHTO
 UCS
 IS classification
 SOIL TESTS
 Atterberg limit
 Sieve analysis
 Hydrometer analysis
 Engineering properties
 The main engineering properties of soils are permeability, compressibility and
shear strength.
 Permeability refers the water can flow through soils. It is required for
estimation of seepage discharge through soil masses.
 Compressibility referred to the deformations produced in soils when they are

subjected to compressive loads. It is required for computation of the
settlements of structures founded on soils.
 Shear strength of the soil is the ability to resist shear stresses. The shear
strength determines the stability of slopes, bearing capacity of soils and earth
pressure on retaining structures.
 Index properties
 The test required for determination of engineering properties

are required Index properties of the soils.
 Simple test required to determine the index properties are

known as soil classification tests. The soils are classified and
identified based on index properties.
 The main index properties of course grained soils are particle

size and relative density and for fine grained soils are
atterbergs limit and the consistency.
Particle Size Distribution
 The mechanical analysis, also known as particle size analysis is
a method of separation of soils into different fractions based on
the particle size.
 For measuring the distribution of particle sizes in a soil sample,
it is necessary to conduct different particle-size tests. It is
shown graphically on a particle size distribution curve.
 The mechanical analysis can be categorized in two types, that
are sieve analysis and sedimentation analysis. The set of sieve
analysis is for course grained soils which has particle size
greater than 75 micron.
 Wet sieving is carried out for the soil specimen of fine grained
soils which has the particle size less than 75 micron and also
known as sedimentation analysis.
 Dry sieve analysis is carried out on particles coarser than 75
micron. Samples (with fines removed) are dried and shaken
through a set of sieves of descending size. The weight retained
in each sieve is measured. The cumulative percentage
quantities finer than the sieve sizes (passing each given sieve
size) are then determined.
 The course grained soils can be further sub divided into gravel
fraction and sand fraction. The size greater than 4.75 mm called
gravel and size between 75 micron to 4.75mm called sand.
 A set of course sieves, consisting of the sieves of size 80mm,
40mm, 20mm, 10mm and 4.75mm is required for the gravel
fraction.
 The second set of sieves, consisting of the sieves of size
2mm, 1mm, 600µ, 425, 212, 150 and 75µ is used for
sieving minus 4.75mm fraction.
 The soil is sieved through the set of course sieves

manually or using a mechanical shaker. The weight of soil
retained on each sieve is obtained.
 The resulting data is presented as a distribution curve with
grain size along x-axis (log scale) and percentage
passing along y-axis (arithmetic scale).
Grain-Size Distribution Curve
 The size distribution curves, as obtained from coarse and fine

grained portions, can be combined to form one complete grain-
size distribution curve (also known as grading curve). A
typical grading curve is shown.
 From the complete grain-size distribution curve, useful
information can be obtained such as:
 1. Grading characteristics, which indicate the uniformity

and range in grain-size distribution.
2. Percentages (or fractions) of gravel, sand, silt and

clay-size.
 Grading Characteristics
 A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. The

geometric properties of a grading curve are called grading
characteristics.
 To obtain the grading characteristics, three points are
located first on the grading curve.
D60 = size at 60% finer by weight

 The grading characteristics are then determined as

follows.
 Effective size = D10
 Uniformity coefficient,
 Curvature coefficient,
 Both Cuand Cc will be 1 for a single-sized soil.
Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil, i.e. a soil which has a

distribution of particles over a wide size range.
 Cc between 1 and 3 also indicates a well-graded soil.
Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil, i.e. a soil which has a

very narrow particle size range.
 Stoke's law and hydrometer analysis
 Soil particle finer than 75µ size cannot be sieved. The particle size
distribution of such soils is determined by sedimentation analysis.
 The analysis is based on stokes law, which gives terminal velocity of a small
sphere settling in a fluid of infinite extend.
 When a small sphere settles in a fluid, its velocity first increases under the
action of gravity, but the drag force comes into action, and retards the
velocity. After an initial adjustment period, steady conditions are attained
and the velocity becomes constant. The velocity is attained is known as
terminal velocity. The expressions for terminal velocity is,
 Assumption : All particle have rounded shape
 Stoke rule
g  s   w D 2
v
18
 V = Velocity
 g = Acceleration due to gravity
 D = Diameter of the particle
 gs = Density of solids
 gw = Density of water
 h = Viscosity
Hydrometer method
 A hydrometer with a long stem is marked from top to bottom,
generally in the range of 0.995 to 1.030.
 The depth of any layer A-A from the surface B-B is the
effective depth. As soon as the hydrometer inserted in the jar,
the layer of suspension which was at level A-A rises to the
level A’-A’ and that at level B-B rises to the level B’-B’.
 The effective depth He given below,
 He = (H+h/2) – VH/A + VH/2A.
 H = depth from the free surface B’-B’ to the lowest mark on the
stem.
 h = height of the bulb
 VH = Volume of hydrometer
 A = Cross sectional area of jar.
 To determine the depth, calibration of the hydrometer is done

by immersing it in a graduated cylinder partly filled with water
and noting down the volume due to the rise in water level.
 The graduations on the right side of the stem directly give the
reading Rh. As the effective depth He depends upon the
hydrometer reading Rh a calibration chart can be obtained
between the hydrometer reading Rh and the effective depth.
Figures shows the typical calibration chart.
 Test procedure
 Exactly 1000ml of suspension is prepared and placed in the jar

and stop watch is started.
 The hydrometer is inserted in the suspension and the first
reading is taken after ½ minute of the commencement of the
sedimentation. Further readings are taken after one minute, two
minutes and four minutes of the commencement of the
sedimentation.
 The particle size can be expressed as,
 D = √ 0.3h x He / g (G – 1) γw x t
 D = Diameter of the particle.
Consistency of Soils
 The consistency of a fine grained soil is the physical state in
which it exists. It is used to denote the degree of firmness of a
soil. Consistency of a soil is indicated in terms of soft and hard.
 The consistency of a fine-grained soil refers to its firmness,
and it varies with the water content of the soil.
 A gradual increase in water content causes the soil to change
from solid to semi-solid to plastic to liquid states. The water
contents at which the consistency changes from one state to the
other are called consistency limits (or Atterberg limits).
 The three limits are known as the shrinkage limit (WS),
plastic limit (WP), and liquid limit (WL) as shown. The
values of these limits can be obtained from laboratory
tests.
 Two of these are utilised in the classification of fine soils:
 Liquid limit (WL) - change of consistency from plastic to

liquid state
Plastic limit (WP) - change of consistency from
brittle/crumbly to plastic state
 Shrinkage limit (SL) – The water content at which soil

changes from semi solid state to the solid state is known
as the shrinkage limit.
 The difference between the liquid limit and the plastic
limit is known as the plasticity index (IP), and it is in this
range of water content that the soil has a plastic
consistency. The consistency of most soils in the field will
be plastic or semi-solid.
 Indian Standard Soil Classification System
 Classification Based on Grain Size
The range of particle sizes encountered in soils is very
large: from boulders with dimension of over 300 mm
down to clay particles that are less than 0.002 mm. Some
clays contain particles less than 0.001 mm in size which
behave as colloids, i.e. do not settle in water.
 In the Indian Standard Soil Classification System
(ISSCS), soils are classified into groups according to size,
and the groups are further divided into coarse, medium
and fine sub-groups.
 The grain-size range is used as the basis for grouping soil

particles into boulder, cobble, gravel, sand, silt or clay.
 Gravel, sand, silt, and clay are represented by group symbols
G, S, M, and C respectively.
 Coarse-grained soils are those for which more than 50% of

the soil material by weight has particle sizes greater than 0.075
mm. They are basically divided into either gravels (G) or
sands (S).
 According to gradation, they are further grouped as well-

graded (W) or poorly graded (P). If fine soils are present, they
are grouped as containing silt fines (M) or as containing clay
fines (C).
 For example, the combined symbol SW refers to well-
graded sand with no fines.
 Both the position and the shape of the grading curve for a
soil can aid in establishing its identity and description.
Some typical grading curves are shown.
 Curve A - a poorly-graded medium SAND
Curve B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e. having

equal amounts of gravel and sand)
Curve C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND
Curve D - a sandy SILT
Curve E - a silty CLAY (i.e. having little amount of sand)

 Primary Letter Secondary Letter
 G : Gravel W : well-graded
 S : Sand P : poorly graded
 M : Silt M : with non-plastic fines
 C : Clay C : with plastic fines
 O : Organic soil L : of low plasticity
 P: Peat I : of medium plasticity
 H : of high plasticity
 Fine-grained soils are those for which more than 50% of
the material has particle sizes less than 0.075 mm. Clay
particles have a flaky shape to which water adheres, thus
imparting the property of plasticity.
 A plasticity chart , based on the values of liquid limit

(WL) and plasticity index (IP), is provided in ISSCS to aid
classification. The 'A' line in this chart is expressed
as IP = 0.73 (WL - 20).
 An empirical boundary known as the "A" line separates
inorganic clays from silty and organic soils.
 Depending on the point in the chart, fine soils are divided

into clays (C), silts (M), or organic soils (O). Three divisions
of plasticity are also defined as follows.
 Low plasticity
 WL< 35%
 Intermediate plasticity
 35% < WL< 50%
 High plasticity
 WL> 50%
 The 'A' line and vertical lines at WL equal
to 35% and 50% separate the soils into various classes.
 For example, the combined symbol CH refers to clay of

high plasticity.
 Classification as per liquidity index is:
 Liquidity index Classification
>1 Liquid
 0.75 - 1.00 Very soft
 0.50 - 0.75 Soft
 0.25 - 0. 50 Medium stiff
 0 - 0.25 Stiff
<0 Semi-solid
Curve A- well graded soil (good representations of all type particle)
Curve B- uniformly graded soil (most of the particle are in same size)
Curve c- well graded sand
Curve E- gap graded soil (some intermediate particle are missing)
Uniformity coefficient (Cu):
Uniformity coefficient is a measure of particle-size range
and is given by the ratio of D60 and D10 sizes:
Cu = D60 /D10
Uniformly grade soil, Cu is nearly unity.
For well graded soil ,

cu > 4 for gravel.
cu = 6 for sand.
COEFFICIENT OF CURVATURE (cc):
The shape of particle-size curve is
represented by the Coefficient of curvature cc, given by
Cc = (D30 )2/(D10 x D60 )
For well graded soil ,

cc must between 1 to 3.
For coarse grained soil, certain particle size such as
D 10 ,D 30 and D 60 .
D 10 – Represents a size, in mm such that 10%of particles
are finer than this size. It is called as effective diameter
or effective size.
are finer than this size.
are finer than this size.
Objectives
 Classification of Soil
 Coefficient of curvature
 Uniformity coefficient
 Fineness Modulus
Applications
 Gradation of soil:
Well graded
Poorly graded
 Proportioning of soil for mix design
 Design of filters
Theory
If more than 50% of sample is retained on IS Sieve 4.75mm,

sample is gravel
If more than 50% of sample passes through IS Sieve 4.75mm,

sample is sand
Theory
 Coefficient of Curvature :
Cc = D302
D10 x D60
Between 1 -3 : Well graded gravel and sand
Theory
 Uniformity Coefficient :
Cu = D60
D10
More than 4 - Well graded gravel
More than 6 – Well graded sand
(IS 1498 - 1970)

Theory
 Fineness modulus (FM) :
sum of total percentage of the

FM = sample retained on each sieve
100
2 – 4 : fine soil
6.5-8 : coarse soil
Apparatus
 Two set of sieves:
Set1:
IS sieves of size 300mm, 80mm, 40mm, 20mm, 10mm,
4.75mm
Set 2 :
IS sieves of size 2mm,0.85mm,0.425mm,0.15mm,0.075mm
 Mechanical Shaker
 Brush
 Oven
 Weigh balance
Procedure
 For sample retaining on 4.75mm sieve ,
Use set 1 – 5kg sample
 For sample passing through 4.75mm sieve,

Use set 2 – 1kg sample
Procedure
 Clean all the sieves and pan properly with brush.
 Arrange the sieves according to size, with pan at bottom

and size increasing upwards.
 Put the sample in top sieve and Place it in the shaker.

Ensure that the sieves are held tightly in the shaker.
Procedure
 Operate the shaker for 5-10 minutes.
 Weight the material retained on each sieve to nearest 1

gram.
Precautions
 While drying, the temperature of oven should not be more
than 105°C because higher temperature may cause
permanent change in 0.075mm material.
 During shaking, soil sample should not be allowed to

come out.
 For plotting, percent finer should be determined with

respect to total soil taken for initial analysis.
Observations and Calculations
IS Sieve
2.36mm
IS Sieve
1.18mm
IS Sieve
0.600mm
IS Sieve
0.300mm
IS Sieve
0.150mm
IS Sieve
0.075mm
Pan
Result
Class Outlines
Atterberg Limits
Liquid Limit, LL
Plastic Limit, PL
Plasticity Index, PI
Soil Classification
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
Civil Engineering - Texas Tech University

Classification of Fine Grained Soils
The classification system uses the term “fines” to

describe everything that passes through a # 200 sieve
(<0.075mm)
No attempt to distinguish between silts and clays in
terms of particles sizes since the biggest difference
between silt and clay is not their particle sizes, but their
physical and chemical structures
The soil consistency is used as a practical and an
inexpensive way to distinguish between silts and clays
Plasticity property is important because it describes the
response of a soil to change in moisture content

Why Plasticity?
Water Content Significantly affects properties of Silty
and Clayey soils (unlike sand and gravel)
Strength decreases as water content increases
Soils swell-up when water content increases
Fine-grained soils at very high water content possess
properties similar to liquids
As the water content is reduced, the volume of the soil
decreases and the soils become plastic
If the water content is further reduced, the soil
becomes semi-solid when the volume does not change

Atterberg Limits
Atterberg limits are important to describe the
consistency of fine-grained soils
The knowledge of the soil consistency is important in
defining or classifying a soil type or predicting soil
performance when used a construction material
A fine-grained soil usually exists with its particles
surrounded by water.
The amount of water in the soil determines its state or
consistency
Four states are used to describe the soil consistency;
solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid
Atterberg Limits (cont.)
Wetting
Semi
Solid Plastic Liquid
Solid
vi
S = 100 %
vf
SL PL LL
PI
Drying w%
Atterberg Limits
Liquid Limit (LL) is defined as the moisture content at
which soil begins to behave as a liquid material and
begins to flow
(Liquid limit of a fine-grained soil gives the moisture content at which the shear
strength of the soil is approximately 2.5kN/m2)
Plastic Limit (PL) is defined as the moisture content at
which soil begins to behave as a plastic material
Shrinkage Limit (SL) is defined as the moisture content
at which no further volume change occurs with further
reduction in moisture content.
(SL represents the amount of water required to fully saturate the soil (100%
saturation))

Liquid Limit (LL)
In the lab, the LL is defined as the moisture content
(%) required to close a 2-mm wide groove in a soil
pat a distance of 0.5 in along the bottom of the
groove after 25 blows.
ASTM D 4318
Soil sample size 150g passing # 40 sieve
Equipment: Casagrande liquid limit device

Source: http://www.wku.edu/~matthew.dettman/matt/prof/ce410/ll.htm

Liquid Limit (Procedure)
150g air dry soil passing # 40 sieve
Add 20% of water - mix thoroughly
Place a small sample of soil in LL device (deepest part about 8-
10mm)
Cut a groove (2mm at the base)
Run the device, count the number of blows, N
Stop when the groove in the soil close through a distance of
0.5in
Take a sample and find the moisture content
Run the test three times [N~(10-20), N~(20-30) and N~(35-45)]
and
Plot number of blows vs moisture content and determine the
liquid limit (LL) (moisture content at 25 blows)

Determining LL
Log Scale

Plastic Limit (PL)
The moisture content (%) at which the soil
when rolled into threads of 3.2mm (1/8 in) in
diameter, will crumble.
Plastic limit is the lower limit of the plastic
stage of soil
Plasticity Index (PI) is the difference between
the liquid limit and plastic limit of a soil

Plastic Limit (cont.)

Plastic Limit (Procedure)
Take 20g of soil passing #40 sieve into a dish
Add water and mix thoroughly
Prepare several ellipsoidal-shaped soil
masses by quizzing the soil with your hand
Put the soil in rolling device, and roll the soil
until the thread reaches 1/8 in
Continue rolling until the thread crumbles into
several pieces
Determine the moisture content of about 6g
of the crumbled soil.
Plasticity Index, PI
Plasticity Index is the difference between the
liquid limit and plastic limit of a soil
PI = LL - PL
After finding LL and PI use plasticity chart to
classify the soil

Plasticity Chart

In your Report
Plot drop no. (N) in the x-axis (log scale) and
moisture content (w) in percentage
Determine L.L
Determine P.L
Calculate PI

Introduction – soil compaction
In the construction of highway embankments,
earth dams, and many other engineering structures,
loose soils must be compacted to increase their unit
weights. To compact a soil, that is, to place it in a
dense state. The dense state is achieved through the
reduction of the air voids in the soil, with little or
no reduction in the water content. This process must
not be confused with consolidation, in which water
is squeezed out under the action of a continuous
static load.
Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 3
Compaction of Soil
Compaction increases the strength characteristics
of soils, which increase the bearing capacity of
foundations constructed over them.
Compaction also decreases the amount of
undesirable settlement of structures and increases
the stability of slopes of embankments.

Compaction of Soil
Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good

compaction compaction compaction compaction compaction compaction
Increased bearing Higher resistance Increased stability

capacity to deformation Decreased permeability
Increased durability Higher resistance
to frost damage

Purposes of compacting soil
1) Increased Shear Strength
This means that larger loads can be applied to
compacted soils since they are typically
stronger. Increased Shear Strength =>
increased bearing capacity, slope stability, and
pavement system strength
2) Reduced Permeability
This inhibits soils’ ability to absorb water,
and therefore reduces the tendency to
expand/shrink and potentially liquefy
Purposes of compacting soil
3) Reduced Compressibility
This also means that larger loads can be
applied to compacted soils since they
will produce smaller settlements.
4) Control Swelling & Shrinking
5) Reduce Liquefaction Potential

Compaction of Soil
Definition:
Compaction, in general, is the densification of

soil by removal of air, which requires
mechanical energy. Simplistically, compaction
may be defined as the process in which soil
particles are forced closer together with the
resultant reduction in air voids.

Principles of Compaction
Compaction of soils is achieved by reducing the

volume of voids. It is assumed that the compaction
process does not decrease the volume of the solids
or soil grains·
Soil before compacted Soil before compacted

compacted compacted
Compaction Effect
Air Air
Water Water
Solids Solids
Loose soil Compacted soil

The degree of compaction of a soil is measured

by the dry unit weight of the skeleton.
The dry unit weight correlates with the degree
of packing of the soil grains.
=
1+
The more compacted a soil is:

• the smaller its void ratio (e) will be.
• the higher its dry unit weight ( ) will be
Compaction Curve
The compaction curve is relationship between a

soil water content and dry unit weight.
Soil sample was computed at different water
contents in a cylinder of volume 1000 cc and dry
unit weight were obtained.
=
1+
Compaction curve is plotted between the water
content as abscissa and the dry density as ordinate.

Compaction Curve
It is observed that the dry density increases with an
increase in water content till the max. density is
attained. With Further increase in water content,
the dry density decreases.
)γ
20
Dry unit weight(
18
16
14
12
Water Content (Wc)
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Compaction Curve
Optimum moisture content (OMC) :
The water content corresponding to maximum dry unit
weight is called optimum moisture content.
Note that the maximum dry unit weight is only a maximum for
a specific compactive effort and method of compaction.
)γ
Dry unit weight(
18
16
14
12
OMC Water Content (Wc)
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Compaction Curve
Optimum moisture content (OMC) :
Each compactive effort for a given soil has its own OMC.
As the compactive effort is increased, the maximum
density generally increases and the OMC decreases.
)γ
18
Dry unit weight(
16
14
12
OMC1 OMC2 Water Content (Wc)
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
15
Compaction Curve
Zero air voids curve or saturation line
The curve represent the fully saturated condition ( S=
100%). ( It can not be reached by compaction )
Theoretical unit weight is given as =
1+ ∗
)γ
18 "Zero Air Voids"

Dry unit weight(
S = 100%
16
14
12
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Compaction Curve
Line of Optimums
A line drawn through the peak points of several
compaction curves at different compactive efforts for the
same soil will be almost parallel to a zero air voids
curve , it is called the line of optimums
)γ
Line of Optimums
18 "Zero Air Voids"
Dry unit weight(
S = 100%
16
14
12 Water Content (Wc)

8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Factors affecting Compaction
• Water content of the soil
• Amount of compaction
• Type of soil being compacted
• The amount of compactive energy used
• Method of compaction
• Thickness of layer
• Saturation line
• Admixtures
• Stone content

Water content of the soil

As water is added to a soil ( at low moisture content)
it acts as a softening agent on the soil particles
and becomes easier for the particles to move past one
another during the application of the compacting
forces. As the soil compacts the voids are reduced and
this causes the dry unit weight ( or dry density) to
increase.

Water content below OMC
As the water content increases, the particles develop larger
and larger water films around them, which tend to
“lubricate” the particles and make them easier to be moved
about and reoriented into a denser configuration.
)γ
20
Dry unit weight(
18
16
14
12
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Water content at OMC
The density is at the maximum, and it
does not increase any further.
)γ
20
18
Dry unit weight(
16
14
12
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Water content above OMC
Water starts to replace soil particles in the
mold and the dry unit weight starts to
decrease.
)γ
20
Dry unit weight(
18
16
14
12
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Soil type
Soil type, grain size, shape of the soil grains,
amount and type of clay minerals present and the
specific gravity of the soil solids, have a great
influence on the dry unit weight and optimum
moisture content
Uniformly graded sand or poorly graded in nature
is difficult to compact them.

Soil type
In poorly graded sands the dry unit weight
initially decreases as the moisture content increases
and then increases to a maximum value with
further increase in moisture content.
At lower moisture content, the capillary tension
inhibits the tendency of the soil particles to move
around and be compacted.

Soil type
At a given moisture content, a clay with low
plasticity will be weaker than a heavy or high
plastic clay so it will be easier to compact.

Structure of Compacted Clay
Intermediate
structure
High Compactive
Dispersed Structure
Dry Unit Weight
Effort
or
Low Compactive Effort parallel
Flocculated Structure, or
Honeycomb Structure, or
Random
Water Content
Effect of Compaction effort
The compaction energy per unit volume used
for the standard Proctor test can be given as
. . !"ℎ$ ℎ !"ℎ$
× × ×
ℎ %% &
=
' (% % &

Effects of increasing compactive effort
Increased compactive effort enables greater dry unit
weight. It can be seen from this figure that the
compaction curve is not a unique soil characteristic.
It depends on the compaction energy.
)γ
18 High compactive effort curve

Dry unit weight(
16
Low compactive effort curve
14
12
OMC1 OMC2 Water Content (Wc)
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Effects of increasing compactive effort
For this reason it is important when giving values of
(γdry)max and OMC to also specify the compaction
procedure (for example, standard or modified).
From the preceding observation we can see that
1. As the compaction effort is increased, the maximum dry
unit weight of compaction is also increased.
2. As the compaction effort is increased, the optimum
moisture content is decreased to some extent.

General Compaction Methods
Coarse-grained soils Fine-grained soils

Laboratory
Falling weight and hammers

Vibrating hammer Kneading compactors
Static loading and press
Vibration Kneading
Hand-operated vibration plates Hand-operated tampers
Field
Motorized vibratory rollers Sheep-foot rollers

Rubber-tired equipment
Free – falling weight Rubber-tired rollers
dynamic compaction
30
Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST
Laboratory Compaction Tests
Laboratory compaction tests provide the basis for

determining the percent compaction and molding
water content needed to achieve the required
engineering properties, and for controlling
construction to assure that the required
compaction and water contents are achieved.

The aim of the test is to establish the maximum

dry unit weight that may be attained for a given
soil with a standard amount of compactive
effort.
When a series of samples of a soil are
compacted at different water content the plot
usually shows a distinct peak.

The fundamentals of compaction of fine-
grained soils are relatively new. R.R. Proctor
in the early 1930’s developed the principles of
compaction.
The proctor test is an impact compaction. A
hammer is dropped several times on a soil sample
in a mold. The mass of the hammer, height of
drop, number of drops, number of layers of soil,
and the volume of the mold are specified.
There are several types of test which can be

used to study the compactive properties of soils.
1. Standard Procter Test is not sufficient for
airway and highways,
2. Modified Procter Test was later adopted by
AASHTO and ASTM

Standard Procter Test
Soil is compacted into a mould in 3-5 equal

layers, each layer receiving 25 blows of a hammer
of standard weight. The energy (compactive
effort) supplied in this test is 595 kJ/m3. The
important dimensions are
Volumeofmould Hammermass Dropofhammer
1000cm^3 2.5kg 300mm

Standard Proctor test equipment

Standard Proctor test equipment

Proctor established that compaction is a function of

four variables:
• Dry density ( d) or dry unit weight d.
• Water content wc
• Compactive effort (energy E)
• Soil type (gradation, presence of clay minerals,
etc.)

The soil is mixed with varying amounts

of water to achieve different water contents
Several samples of the same soil , but at
different water contents, are compacted
according to the compaction test
specification

•Apply 25 blows from the rammer dropped from a
height of 305 mm above the soil.

•Distribute the blows uniformly over the surface
and ensure that the rammer always falls freely and
is not obstructed. 4 5
4 6
1 2 7
etc.
3 8
The first four blows The successive blows

Rammer Pattern for compaction in 101.6 mm Mold

The soil is in mold will be divided into three lifts
Each Lift is compacted 25 times 2.5 kg (5.5lb)
25 blows per
layer
•Place a second quantity of
moist soil in the mould such that
305 mm
when compacted it occupies a
little over two-thirds of the
height of the mould body.
Soil sample
3 layers

•Repeat procedure once more so
that the amount of soil used is 2.5 kg (5.5lb)
25 blows per
sufficient to fill the mould body, layer
with the surface not more than
6mm proud of the upper edge of
305 mm
the mould body.
Soil sample
3 layers

The unit weight and the actual water content of

each compacted sample are measured
Derive the dry unit weight from the known unit
weight and water content
=
1+

Plot the dry unit weight versus water content for

each compacted sample.
Determine the maximum dry weight and OMC
)γ
18 "Zero Air Voids"

Dry unit weight(
S = 100%
16
14
12
OMC
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Water Content (Wc)

Specification of standard Proctor test ( Based on ASTM Test
Designation 698)
Item Method A Method B Method C
Diameter of mold 101.6 mm 101.6 mm 152.4 mm
Volume of mold 943.3 cm^3 943.3 cm^3 2124 cm^3
Weight of hammer 24.4 N 24.4 N 24.4 N
Height of hammer drop 304.8 mm 304.8 mm 304.8 mm
Number of hammer blows
per layer of soil 25 25 56
Number of layers
of compaction 3 3 3
591.3 591.3 591.3
Energy of compaction kN.m/m^3
kN.m/m^3 kN.m/m^3

Designation 698) ( con.)
Soil to be used Portion passing Portion passing Portion passing
No.4 9.5 mm 19- mm sieve .
( 457mm)sieve . sieve . May be used if
May be used if May be used if more than 20%
20% or less retained on No.4 by weight of
by weight of sieve is more than material is
material is 20% and 20% or retained on 9.5
retained on less by weight of mm sieve and less
No.4 sieve. material is than 30% by
retained on 9.5 weight of
mm sieve. material is
retained on 19-
mm sieve.

Modified Procter Test
•Was developed during World War II

•By the U.S. Army Corps of Engineering
• For a better representation of the
compaction required for airfield to support
heavy aircraft.

Same as the Standard Proctor Test with the

following exceptions:
The soil is compacted in five layers
Hammer weight is 10 Lbs or 4.54 Kg
Drop height h is 18 inches or 45.72cm
Then the amount of Energy is calculated

Uniformly distribution of the
blows over the surface 44.5 N(10 lb)
457.2 mm
6 9
1 5 2
8 7 # 5
3 # 4
# 3
Rammer Pattern for compaction in # 2
152,4 mm Mold # 1

Designation 698)
Diameter of mold 101.6 mm 101.6 mm 152.4 mm
Volume of mold 943.3 cm^3 943.3 cm^3 2124 cm^3
Weight of hammer 44.5 N 44.5 N 44.5 N
Height of hammer drop 457.2 mm 457.2 mm 457.2 mm
Number of hammer blows
per layer of soil 25 25 56
Number of layers
of compaction 5 5 5
2696 2696 2696
Energy of compaction kN.m/m^3
kN.m/m^3 kN.m/m^3

Designation 698) ( con.)
Soil to be used Portion passing Portion passing Portion passing
No.4 (457mm)sieve 9.5 mm sieve . 19- mm sieve .
May be used if 25% May be used if May be used if
or less by weight of soil retained on more than 20%
material is retained No.4 sieve is by weight of
on No.4 sieve. more than 25% material is
If this gradation and 25% or less retained on 9.5
requirement cannot by weight of mm sieve and less
be met, then Methods material is than 30% by
B or C may be used. retained on 9.5 weight of
mm sieve. material is
retained on 19-
mm sieve.

Comparison-Curves
( * .)
Dry unit weight (γd)
Modified Procter
Test
(,- . .)
Standard Procter
Test
OMC
Water Content (wc)
Comparison-Summary
Standard Proctor Test Modified Proctor Test
Mold size: 943.3cm^3 Mold size: 943.3cm^3

304.8 mm height of drop 457.2 mm height of drop
24.4 N hammer 44.5 N hammer
3 layers 5 layers
25 blows/layer 25 blows/layer
Energy 591.3 kN.m/m^3 Energy 2696 kN.m/m^3

Filed Compaction
Compaction Equipment
Most of the compaction in the field is done
with rollers. The four most common types of
rollers are:
1. Smooth-wheel rollers (or smooth-drum rollers)
2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers
3. Sheepsfoot rollers
4. Vibratory rollers

Filed Compaction
Smooth-wheel rollers are suitable for proof rolling
subgrades and for finishing operation of fills with
sandy and clayey soils. These rollers provide 100%
coverage under the wheels, with ground contact
pressures as high as 310 to 380 kN/m^2. They are
not suitable for producing high unit weights of
compaction when used on thicker layers.

Smooth-wheel rollers
oone steel drum and
rubber tired drive
wheels
o two steel drums one of
which is the driver
o effective for gravel,
sand, silt soils

Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers
Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers are better in many
respects than the smooth-wheel rollers. The former
are heavily loaded with several rows of tires.
These tires are closely spaced—four to six in a row.
Pneumatic rollers can be used for sandy and clayey
soil compaction.
Compaction is achieved by a combination of
pressure and kneading action.
Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers

Sheepsfoot rollers
Sheepsfoot rollers are drums with a large number
of projections. The area of each projection may
range from 25 to 85 cm2. These rollers are most
effective in compacting clayey soils. The contact
pressure under the projections can range from
1400 to 7000 kN/m2.

Sheepsfoot rollers
During compaction in the field, the initial passes
compact the lower portion of a lift.
Compaction at the top and middle of a lift is
done at a later stage.

Sheepsfoot rollers

Vibratory rollers
Vibratory rollers are extremely efficient in
compacting granular soils. Vibrators can be
attached to smooth-wheel, pneumatic rubber-
tired, or sheepsfoot rollers to provide vibratory
effects to the soil. The vibration is produced by
rotating off-center weights.

Factors Affecting Field Compaction
For field compaction, soil is spread in layers

and a predetermined amount of water is
sprayed on each layer (lift) of soil, after which
compaction is initiated by a desired roller.
In addition to soil type and moisture content,
other factors must be considered to achieve the
desired unit weight of compaction in the field.

These factors include the thickness of lift, the

intensity of pressure applied by the
compacting equipment, and the area over
which the pressure is applied.
These factors are important because the
pressure applied at the surface decreases with
depth, which results in a decrease in the degree
of soil compaction.
During compaction, the dry unit weight of

soil also is affected by the number of roller
passes.
The dry unit weight of a soil at a given
moisture content increases to a certain point
with the number of roller passes.

Specifications for Field Compaction
In most specifications for earthwork, the

contractor is instructed to achieve a
compacted field dry unit weight of 90 to
95% of the maximum dry unit weight
determined in the laboratory by either the
standard or modified Proctor test.

This is a specification for relative

compaction, which can be expressed as
& ! &
/= × 100 %
& 012
where R = relative compaction

For the compaction of granular soils, specifications
sometimes are written in terms of the required relative
density Dr or the required relative compaction.

Relative density should not be confused

with relative compaction.
Correlation between relative compaction (R) and
the relative density Dr
/
/=
1−6 1−/
&(%!7)
/ =
& 012

Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction
When the compaction work is progressing in

the field, knowing whether the specified unit
weight has been achieved is useful.
The standard procedures for determining the
field unit weight of compaction include
1. Sand cone method
2. Rubber balloon method
3. Nuclear method
Sand Cone Method
Sand Cone Method (ASTM Designation D-1556)

The sand cone device consists of a glass or plastic jar
with a metal cone attached at its top

Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction
Nuclear Method Rubber Balloon

method
Worked Examples
Example 1
The results of a standard Proctor test are given in the
following table.
Determine the maximum dry unit weight of compaction
and the optimum moisture content Also, determine the
moisture content required to achieve 95% of (γdry)max .
VolumeofProctor 944 944 944 944 944 944 944 944
Mold(cm^3)
Massofwetsoilinthe 1.68 1.71 1.77 1.83 1.86 1.88 1.87 1.85
mold(kg)
Watercontent(%) 9.9 10.6 12.1 13.8 15.1 17.4 19.4 21.2

Worked Examples
Example 2
Given
1) The in situ void ratio of a borrow pit’s soil is 0.72.
2) The borrow pit soil is to be excavated and transported to
fill a construction site where it will be compacted to a void
ratio of 0.42.
3) The construction project required 10000 m^3 of
compacted soil fill
Required
Volume of soil that must be excavated from the borrow pit
to provide the required volume of fill.

Unit 1

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Soil Mechanics

 *According to Terzaghi (1948): "Soil Mechanics is the

• Firm Soil -> Spread Footing (Spread Foundation)

ii. Land Erosion

Soil subjected to low temperature (Frost action)

 There are two main types of weathering processes:

 Biological weathering is caused by activities of living

The soil types based on the grain size limits according to

 Water content=(weight of water / weight of dry soil)*100%

1)BULK DENSITY (b)

 6. BULK UNIT WEIGHT ( )  b

9. UNIT WEIGHT OF SOLIDS(γs)

 sub   sat   w   '

 GRAVEL 2.65 - 2.68

PART – 1 : Calibration of cylinder

 To classify the soil into a group according to the soil

 Soil classification is adopting a formal system of soil

 Such a system must be meaningful and concise in an

 Description of soil is a statement that describes the

 Classification of soil is the separation of soil into classes

 A classification for engineering purposes should be based

 The relevant criteria for classifying soils are the size

 Compressibility referred to the deformations produced in soils when they are

 The test required for determination of engineering properties

 Simple test required to determine the index properties are

 The main index properties of course grained soils are particle

 The soil is sieved through the set of course sieves

 The size distribution curves, as obtained from coarse and fine

 1. Grading characteristics, which indicate the uniformity

2. Percentages (or fractions) of gravel, sand, silt and

 A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. The

D60 = size at 60% finer by weight

 The grading characteristics are then determined as

 Both Cuand Cc will be 1 for a single-sized soil.

Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil, i.e. a soil which has a

Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil, i.e. a soil which has a

 To determine the depth, calibration of the hydrometer is done

 Exactly 1000ml of suspension is prepared and placed in the jar

 Liquid limit (WL) - change of consistency from plastic to

 Shrinkage limit (SL) – The water content at which soil

 The grain-size range is used as the basis for grouping soil

 Coarse-grained soils are those for which more than 50% of

 According to gradation, they are further grouped as well-

Curve B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e. having

Curve C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND

Curve D - a sandy SILT

Curve E - a silty CLAY (i.e. having little amount of sand)

 A plasticity chart , based on the values of liquid limit

 Depending on the point in the chart, fine soils are divided

 For example, the combined symbol CH refers to clay of

Uniformly grade soil, Cu is nearly unity.

For well graded soil ,

For well graded soil ,

 Proportioning of soil for mix design

If more than 50% of sample is retained on IS Sieve 4.75mm,

If more than 50% of sample passes through IS Sieve 4.75mm,

(IS 1498 - 1970)

sum of total percentage of the

 For sample passing through 4.75mm sieve,

 Arrange the sieves according to size, with pan at bottom

 Put the sample in top sieve and Place it in the shaker.

 Weight the material retained on each sieve to nearest 1

 During shaking, soil sample should not be allowed to