Control of Continuous Process

Lecturer:
Dr. Shallon Stubbs
Block diagram of a closed-loop
system
 Types of Process
• Discrete Processes
A discrete process consists of distinct operations
with a definite condition for initiating each
operation. Discrete process operations can be
grouped into two categories those that can be
initiated by time and those which are initiated by
an event.
 Types of Process
• Continuous Process
A continuous process has uninterrupted inputs
and outputs – measures and controls continuous
process variables. The output is maintained at
some desired set-point by continuously adjusting
one or more input to the system.
 Modes of Control
• Two-Position Control Mode
• Multi-position controllers
• Proportional Control Mode (P)
• Integral Control mode (I)
• Derivative Control Mode (D)
• PI,PD, PID Control Modes
PID Controller
 On/off (Two-Position) Mode
• This is the cheapest and simplest control
mode. The controller output has only two
possible states, depending on the sign of
the error.
• Most two position controllers have a
neutral zone to prevent chattering. The
neutral zone is an hysteresis region setup
about the zero error where there is no
change in the control action.
 ON-OFF Controller with Nuetral zone
• A liquid level control system linearly converts a displacement of 2 to 3 m into
a 4 – 20 mA signal. A relay serves as the two-position controller. The liquid
level must stay within 2.3 to 2.5 m, what would be the upper and lower limit
of the nuetral zone in mA.
Factors that contribute to cycling
(chattering)
1) Small Capacitance of the system: Example a tank
of smaller cross-sectional area would exhibit
more drastic changes in height with volumetric
flowrate disturbances.
2) Large Dead-time lag of the process: Refers to
delay between changes in the process variable
being recognized and control action.
3) Large Load changes: regularly and or sudden
changes in the disturbance variables of the
system.
 Multiposition Control Mode
• This is a logical extension of the two-
position control-mode in which several
intermediate settings of the controller
output is possible between its upper most
and lower most state.
• This is to reduce the cycling behavior
associated with the two-position mode.
 Proportional Control Mode
• The proportional control mode changes
the output of the controller proportionally
to the size of the error signal
• Controller Equation:

p = kpe + po

Kp – proportional gain (%per unit %error)

e – percentage error
p0 – controller nominal output (zero-error output)
Proportional Mode
 Direct and Reverse Acting Mode
• Reverse Action: In reverse acting mode a
positive error results in an increase of the
controller’s output, however this actually
corresponds to the measured variable
falling below the setpoint.
• P = KpxE + Po -E = S.P – M.V
• P = KpxE + Po +E = S.P – M.V
 Direct and Reverse Acting Mode
• Direct Action: In Direct acting mode a
negative error results in a increase in the
controller’s output, hence the output
adjusts in the same direction as the
feedback signal is changing.
• P = -KpxE + Po -E = S.P – M.V
• P = -KpxE + Po +E = S.P – M.V
Proportional Band and Proportional
Gain
• Proportional Band (PB) is the amount of
error that is required to result in a 100%
change in the controllers output
• Proportional Gain (Kp) is the % change in
the controller’s output per unit change in
error.
• Kp = 100/PB PB = 100/Kp
 Proportional-Mode Offset Error
Problem
• One problem with the proportional controller is that it
cannot completely eliminate the error caused by a load
change. A residual error is always required to maintain the
final control element (the valve) at some position other than
corresponding to the controller output p o.
• This limits the use of the P-controller to only a few cases,
particularly those where a manual reset of the operating
point is possible to eliminate offset.
• Proportional control generally is used in processes with
minimal load changes or with moderate to small process
lag times which allows for large Kp (i.e very small
proportional band setting).
 Proportional-Mode Offset Error
Problem
• Consider the proportional
mode level-control system of
Figure 2b. valve A is linear,
with a flow scale factor 10m3/h
percent controller output. The
controller output is nominally
50% with a constant of Kp =
10% per%error. A load change
occurs when flow through
valve B changes from 500
m3/h to 600m3/h . Calculate the
new controller output and
offset error.
 Integral Mode
• The integral changes the output of the controller
by an amount proportional to the integral of the
error.
• Thus even if the size of the error is constant, the
controller response would increase with time
duration of the error.
• The integral action is essential achieved by
summing the error over time, multiplying that
sum by a the integral gain, and adding the
present controller output.
 Integral Mode
• Control mode Equation: p  K I  edt  p0

• Where KI is the integral gain or integral rate (per unit time)

 PI Control Mode
• The PI mode controller combines the integral
and proportional mode action
• The integral mode eliminates the offset error
associated with the proportional-mode action not
be able to adjust the zero-error state of the
controller to accommodate for load changes
• The integral mode provides reset action because
it will continue to adjust the controller output until
the error is reduced to zero and whatever
changes it makes to the output remains even
after the error is eliminated.
 PI Control Mode Equation

• p = kpe + KpKI  edt + p0

• Or
1
• p = kpe + K p  edt+ p0
Ti

where KI = 1/Ti and Ti is referred to as the

integral time. This is the time taken for the
integral mode to repeat the action of the
proportional mode. The integral time is
given in units of time therefore the integral
gain is given in per unit time.
Response of Proportional Plus Integral
Mode Controller
 Derivative Control Mode
• The derivative mode changes the output of the
controller proportionally to the rate of change of
the error signal
• The derivative mode is an attempt to anticipate
the error by observing the rate of change of the
error and advancing the control action in an
effort to combat the expected error.
• The derivative mode is never used alone. When
used in a PD or PID controller, the gain is
usually chosen to be small to avoid large sudden
changes in the output response due to a rapid
rate of change of the error.
Derivative Control Mode
 Summary of characterisitics:

• 1. If the error is zero or constant the mode

provides no output adjustment.
• 2. If the error is changing with time, the
mode adjust the output by KD% for a unit
rate of change of the error.
• 3. The direction in which the output is
adjusted is dependent upon the whether
the error is increasing or decreasing with
time.
 Proportional Derivative Mode
• The derivative control mode is sometimes used
with the proportional mode to reduce the
tendency for oscillations and allow a higher
proportional gain setting.
• The Proportional mode action will response to
the immediate value of the error while the
derivative mode response to the future value of
the error.
• The anticipatory action of the derivative mode
makes PD and PID controller suitable for
process with sudden load changes that produce
excessive errors.
 Proportional Plus Derivative Mode
• The equation for the controller is given by:
de
p  K pe  K p K D  po
dt

• Where KD – is the derivative gain (time)

Kp – proportional gain
• The derivative gain KD may be interpreted
as the time advance into the future for
which the error size is anticipated.
 PID Control Mode
• The PID control mode is a combination of
the proportional, integral, and derivative
control modes.
• The integral mode is used to provide reset
action (eliminate the offset error due to
load changes).
• The derivative mode reduces the tendency
towards oscillation and provides
anticipatory control action.
 PID Controller
• The equation of a three-mode controller is given
by: de
p  K p e  K p K I  edt K p K D  po
• dt
The Transfer function of the Controller is obtain by carrying
out the laplace transformation of the above equation:
 de t  
L p(t )  L k p e t   k p k I  e t  dt  k p k d 
 dt 
E (s)
P( s )  k p E ( s)  k p k I  k p k d sE ( s ) + E(s) P(s)
s Gc(s)
R(s) -
 k k 
P ( s )   k p  p I  k p k d s  E ( s )
 s  C(s)

Where R(s) – Setpoint, C(s) – Control Variable, and Gc(s) = P(s)/E(s)

 Block Diagram Reduction
 
The block diagram of Figure 1 can be simplified to derive the closed-loop
transfer function of the system as follows:
 
Error = reference – feedback variable
E =SP – Cm (i)
 
Controller output = error x controller transfer function
V = G c .E (ii)
 
Manipulated variable = controller output x manipulating element TF
M = Gm . V (iii)

Controlled variable C = manipulating variable x Process TF

C = GP M (iv)
 
Combining eqn (ii), (iii) and (iv):
C = GmGc GPE let G = GmGcGp (Forward transfer function)
C=GE (v)
 Block Diagram Reduction
SP + C
GcGmGp
- C
SP Gcl
Cm
H

Feedback variable = Controlled variable x Transmitter transfer function

Cm = C.H (vi)
Since C = GE and E = SP – Cm, then
C = (SP - Cm).G (vii)
Substituting eqn (vi) into eqn (vii) gives
C = (SP – C.H).G The close-loop TF is therefore: C G
C + CGH = SPG 
C(1 + GH) = SPG SP 1  GH
 Block Diagram Reduction

D
Gd

+ C
R +
Gc Gp +
_

Gf

Derive the Transfer Function Expression for C/R and C/D