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• Three processes play central roles in aerobic
metabolism
• Citric acid cycle (TCA cycle, Krebs cycle) Know all
structures!
• Electron transport chain
• Oxidative phosphorylation
Metabolism: the chemical changes in living cells by which energy
is provided for vital processes and activities and new material is
assimilated, consists of…
• catabolism: the oxidative breakdown of nutrients
catabolism:
• anabolism: the reductive synthesis of biomolecules
anabolism:
• The citric acid cycle is amphibolic; that is, it
amphibolic
plays a role in BOTH catabolism and anabolism
161
The Citric Acid Cycle: overview
Pyruvate
NAD+ Responsible for
NADH producing NADH
AcetylCoA Coenzyme A that is used for
NADH ATP production by
electron transport
NAD+ Citric NAD+
acid
cycle NADH
FADH2
(8 steps)
CO2 Remember, for
FAD NAD+ every glucose, this
GTP
NADH cycle occurs twice!
GDP CO2
162
Pyruvate to AcetylCoA
• Oxidation by NAD+ and formation of a thioester
pyruvate made up of
O dehydrogenase 5 enzymes
CH3 CCOO- + CoA-SH + NAD+ complex
Pyruvate Coenzyme A
O
CH3 C-SCoA + CO2 + NADH
AcetylCoA
First NADH produced
in TCA cycle!
• this 5 step conversion requires NAD+, FAD, Mg2+,
thiamine pyrophosphate, coenzyme A, and lipoic acid
• ∆G°’ = 33.4 kJ•mol1 drives formation of acetylCoA
163
The Citric Acid Cycle
• Step 1: condensation of acetylCoA with
oxaloacetate; ∆G°’ = 32.8 kJ•mol1 (results from
high energy thioester bond)
O condensation refers to
CH3 C-SCoA new CC bond formation
AcetylCoA citrate CH2 COO
synthase + Co AS H
+ HO CCOO
Coenzyme A
O CCOO CH2 COO
CH2 COO Citrate
Oxaloacetate
• citrate synthase is an allosteric enzyme, inhibited by
NADH, ATP, and succinylCoA
164
The Citric Acid Cycle
• Step 2: dehydration and rehydration gives
isocitrate; catalyzed by aconitase
example of an isomerization
165
The Citric Acid Cycle
• Step 3: oxidation of isocitrate followed by
decarboxylation
Second NADH
CH2 -COO- NAD+ NADH
Produced in TCA cycle!
H C-COO-
HO CH-COO-
Isocitrate
CH2 COO CH2 COO
H CCOO H CH
CCOO CCOO
α
• isocitrate dehydrogenase is an allosteric enzyme; it is
inhibited by ATP and NADH, activated by ADP and
NAD+
166
The Citric Acid Cycle
• Step 4: oxidative decarboxylation of
αketoglutarate to succinylCoA
third NADH produced
Co AS H in TCA cycle!
• like pyruvate dehydrogenase, αketoglutarate
dehydrogenase is a multienzyme complex and requires
coenzyme A, thiamine pyrophosphate, lipoic acid, FAD,
and NAD+
• ∆G0’ = 33.4 kJ•mol1 drives formation of succinylCoA
167
The Citric Acid Cycle
• Step 5: formation of succinate
CH2 -COO- succinylCoA
synthetase CH2 COO
CH2 + GDP + P i
+ GTP + Co AS H
CH2 COO
O C SCoA
SuccinylCoA Succinate ATP
• this is the first energyyielding step of the cycle
• breakage of the thioester drives GTP formation
∆
SuccinylCoA + H2 O + CoA-SH
Succinate
GDP + Pi GTP + H2 O
168
The Citric Acid Cycle
• Step 6: oxidation of succinate to fumarate
goes to electron
transport chain
FAD FADH2 H COO
CH2 -COO- C
CH2 -COO- succinate C
OOC H
dehydrogenase
Succinate Fumarate
• Step 7: hydration of fumarate to form malate
H COO-
C H2 O HO CH COO
-
OOC
C
H fumarase CH2 COO
Fumarate LMalate
169
The Citric Acid Cycle
• Step 8: oxidation of malate to oxaloacetate
fourth NADH produced
in TCA cycle
• Completes TCA cycle to produce oxaloacetate
for condensation with new acetylCoA 1610
The TCA cycle at a glance
Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
Pyruvate+ CoASH + NAD+
Acetyl-CoA+ NADH + CO2 + H+
Since glycolysis results in 2 pyruvate per glucose,
this reaction should be doubled to tell you how much
you get from 1 glucose.
1611
Control of the TCA Cycle
Figure 16.7 Conversion of pyruvate to acetylCoA
High ATP, NADH,
and TCA cycle
intermediates
indicate surplus
energy in the cell.
The opposite Is
true for high ADP
and NAD+.
1612
Control continued
• Cells in a resting metabolic state
• need and use comparatively little energy
• high ATP, low ADP imply high ATP/ADP ratio
• high NADH, low NAD+ imply high NADH/NAD+ ratio
• results in inactivation of metabolism
• Cells in an active metabolic state
• need and use more energy than resting cells
• low ATP, high ADP imply low ATP/ADP ratio
• low NADH, high NAD+ imply low NADH/NAD+ ratio
• results in stimulation of metabolism
1613
TCA Cycle in Catabolism
• The breakdown products of proteins,
carbohydrates, and fatty acids all feed into the
citric acid cycle at one or more points
Generation of energy
Pyruvate from proteins does not
require glycolysis and
should result in less
ATP production than
from glucose.
α
1614
CA Cycle in Catabolism
Figure 16.9 A summary of catabolism
1615
The TCA Cycle in Anabolism
• The citric acid cycle is also a source of starting
materials for the biosynthesis of other
compounds
• examples include:
O NH3 +
-
OOCCH2 CH2 CCOO -
OOCCH2 CH2 CHCOO
α
O NH3 +
transamination
OOCCH2 CCOO OOCCH2 CHCOO
1616
CA Cycle and Anabolism
• If a component of the citric acid cycle is taken out
for biosynthesis, it must be replaced to keep the
cycle going
• oxaloacetate, for example, is replaced by the
carboxylation of pyruvate (no energy produced from
this molecule of pyruvate)
O O
biotin
CH3 CCOO- + CO2 + ATP CH2 CCOO- + ADP + Pi
pyruvate
Pyruvate carboxylase COO-
Oxaloacetate
1617
The TCA Cycle in Anabolism
The supply of metabolic intermediates
If intermediates are
removed from the
TCA cycle, acetylCoA
will build up and trigger
the production of
oxaloacetate from
pyruvate and CO2. This
replenishes the pathway.
1618
The TCA Cycle in Anabolism
Transfer of materials in gluconeogenesis
Occurs when energy level
in the cell causes catabolism
to be shut down. Pyruvate
will be shuttled out of the
mitochondrion either in
the form of PEP or malate.
1619
The TCA Cycle in Anabolism
• Lipid anabolism (production) begins with acetyl
CoA and takes place in the cytosol
acetylCoA is produced mainly in mitochondria from
pyruvate by breakdown of fatty acids and
carbohydrates
an indirect transfer mechanism, involving citrate,
exists to get acetylCoA into the cytoplasm for
anabolism citrate can freely cross the membrane
Citrate + CoA-SH + ATP
Acetyl-CoA+ Oxaloacetate D + Pi
+ ATP
FA biosynthesis
1620
The TCA Cycle in Anabolism
Oxaloacetate + NADH + H+ Malate+ NAD+
• the net effect of these two reactions is replacement of
NADH by NADPH, which may be used for reductive
biosyntheses
• while there is some NADPH produced by this means,
its principal source is the pentose phosphate pathway
• The anabolic reactions that produce amino acids
and many other biomolecules begin with TCA
cycle molecules that are transported into the
cytosol
1621
TCA Cycle and Anabolism
Summary of anabolism
1622