“DEVELOPMENT OF

SOLAR CELLS”
Introduction:

 Photovoltaic cells or solar cells are the devices

used in photovoltaic conversion i.e. when solar
radiation falls on these devices, it is converted
directly into dc electricity. The first solar cell
was built by Charles Fritts, who coated the
semiconductor selenium with an extremely
thin layer of gold to form the junctions.
Advantages:

 No moving parts, require little

maintenance, and work quite
satisfactorily with beam or diffuse
radiation.
 Readily adapted for varying power
requirements.
 Environmentally friendly source of
electricity.
Description:
 Single crystal silicon cell.
 p-type, n-type silicon and a
junction.
 Metal electrodes (Ti-Ag
solder).
 Front metal electrode.
 Back metal electrode.
Anti-reflection coating and
a thin transparent
encapsulating sheet on the
top surface.
Solar Module:

 In order to obtain higher

voltages and currents, individual
cells are fixed side by side on a
suitable back-up board and
connected in series and parallel
to form a module or solar panel
 In turn a number of PV modules
are interconnected to form an
array.
Principle of working of a solar cell:
(1) Creation of pairs of positive
and negative charges
(electrons-hole pairs) in the
solar cell by absorbed solar
radiation.
 Photons of sunlight.
 Semiconductor materials.
 Energy bands-valence and
conduction bands.
 Band gap energy.
 Electron-hole pairs.
(2) Separation of the positive and negative charges by
a potential gradient within the cell.
 Electron-hole pair.
 Separated if potential
gradient exists.
 Obtained by sandwiching of
p-type & n-type silicon.
 p-type_silicon doped with
boron. n-type_silicon doped
with phosphorous.
Energy levels, jump in
energy levels.
Existence of potential
gradient, flow of direct
electric current.
Efficiency factors:
(1) Maximum power point: A solar cell may operate over a
wide range of voltages (V) and currents (I). By increasing
the resistive load on an irradiated cell continuously from
zero (a short circuit) to a very high value (an open circuit)
one can determine the maximum-power point, that is, the
load for which the cell can deliver maximum electrical
power at that level of irradiation. Vm x Im = Pm in watts.
(2) Energy conversion efficiency: The maximum conversion
efficiency of a solar cell is given by the ratio of the
maximum useful power to the incident solar radiation.
(3) Fill factor: Another defining term in the overall behavior of
a solar cell is the fill factor (FF). This is the ratio of the
maximum power point divided by the open circuit voltage
(Voc) and the short circuit current (Isc).
 Materials and efficiency:
Various materials have been investigated for solar cells. There are two
main criteria - efficiency and cost. Efficiency is a ratio of the electric
power output to the light power input. By far the most common
material for solar cells is crystalline silicon. Crystalline silicon solar
cells come in three primary categories:
Single crystal or monocrystalline wafers: Most commercial
monocrystalline cells have efficiencies on the order of 14%; the
SunPower cells have high efficiencies around 20%. Single crystal
cells tend to be expensive, and because they are cut from cylindrical
ingots, they cannot completely cover a module without a substantial
waste of refined silicon. Most monocrystalline panels have uncovered
gaps at the corners of four cells. Sunpower and Shell Solar are among
the main manufacturers of this type of cells.
 Poly or multi crystalline made from cast ingots - large crucibles of
molten silicon carefully cooled and solidified. These cells are cheaper
than single crystal cells, but also somewhat less efficient. However,
they can easily be formed into square shapes that cover a greater
fraction of a panel than monocrystalline cells, and this compensates
for their lower efficiencies.
 Ribbon silicon formed by drawing flat thin films from molten silicon
and has a multicrystalline structure. These cells are typically the least
efficient, but there is a cost savings since there is very little silicon
waste since this approach does not require sawing from ingots.
These technologies are wafer based manufacturing. In other words,
in each of the above approaches, self supporting wafers of ~300
micrometres thick are fabricated and then soldered together to form a
module. 
 Thin film approaches are module based. The entire module substrate
is coated with the desired layers and a laser scribe is then used to
delineate individual cells. Two main thin film approaches are
amorphous silicon and CIS:
 Amorphous silicon films are fabricated using chemical vapor
deposition techniques, typically plasma enhanced (PE-CVD). These
cells have low efficiencies around 8%.
 CIS stands for general chalcopyrite films of copper indium selenide
(CuInSe2) While these films can achieve 11% efficiency, their costs
are still too high.
There are additional materials and approaches. For example,
Sanyo has pioneered the HIT cell. In this technology, amorphous
silicon films are deposited onto crystalline silicon wafers.
 Cost analysis:
 The US retail module costs are in the $3.50 to $5.00/Wp range.
Additional installation costs for a residential rooftop retrofit in
California (CA) is around $3.50/Wp or more. So on the low side,
installed system costs are about $7.00/Wp in CA, and probably higher
in places with less experience. Federal, state, utility, and other
subsidies combined pay about half the cost. So CA rule of thumb is
that the installed system PV will cost you at the low end, $3.50/Wp.
Cost reduction:
 Developing innovative manufacturing techniques (like the
EFG process), which speed up the production process, reduce
material wastage & yield large size cells.
 Development of thin film solar devices which require much
less material and, if possible, use material which is inherently
inexpensive. For example Cadmium sulphide-cadmium
telluride and Copper Indium Diselenide solar cells.
 Significant cost reduction is achieved by the use of
concentrators to focus the sunlight on high efficiency solar
cells. The concentration is achieved by using either linear or
circular Fresnel lenses or parabolic or paraboloid
concentrators which focus along a line or at a point,
concentration ratios ranging from 10 to 1000 being used.
 Current research:
There are currently many research groups active in the field of
photovoltaics at universities and research institutions around the world.
Much of the research is focussed on making solar cells cheaper
and/or more efficient, so that they can more effectively compete with
other energy sources, including fossil energy. One way of doing this is
to develop cheaper methods of obtaining silicon that is sufficiently
pure. Silicon is a very common element, but is normally bound in
silica sand. Another approach is to significantly reduce the amount of
raw material used in the manufacture of solar cells. The various thin-
film technologies currently being developed make use of this approach
to reducing the cost of electricity from solar cells. 
The invention of conductive polymers may lead to the
development of much cheaper cells that are based on inexpensive
plastics, rather than semiconductor grade silicon. However, all organic
solar cells made to date suffer from degradation upon exposure to UV
light, and hence have lifetimes which are far too short to be viable.
 Applications:
In spite of the high initial cost, photovoltaic systems are being used
increasingly to supply electricity for many applications requiring
small amounts of power. Their cost-effectiveness increases with the
distance of the location (where they are to be installed) from the
main power grid lines. Some applications for which PV systems
have been developed are,
(1) Pumping water for irrigation and drinking and electrification for
remote villages for providing street lighting and other community
services.
(2) Telecommunication for the post and telegraph and railway
communication network.
In addition, in developed countries solar cells are being used
extensively in consumer products and applications.