Chapter 3: Structures of Metals & Ceramics

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

• How do atoms assemble into solid structures?

• How does the density of a material depend on

its structure?

• How do the crystal structures of ceramic

materials differ from those for metals?

• When do material properties vary with the

sample (i.e., part) orientation?

Chapter 3 - 1
 Energy and Packing
• Non dense, random packing Energy

typical neighbor
bond length

typical neighbor r
bond energy

• Dense, ordered packing Energy

typical neighbor
bond length

typical neighbor r
bond energy

Dense, ordered packed structures tend to have

lower energies.
Chapter 3 - 2
 Materials and Packing
Crystalline materials...
• atoms pack in periodic, 3D arrays
• typical of: -metals
-many ceramics
-some polymers crystalline SiO2
Adapted from Fig. 3.40(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Si Oxygen
Noncrystalline materials...
• atoms have no periodic packing
• occurs for: -complex structures
-rapid cooling
"Amorphous" = Noncrystalline noncrystalline SiO2
Adapted from Fig. 3.40(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Chapter 3 - 3
 Metallic Crystal Structures
• How can we stack metal atoms to minimize
empty space?
2-dimensions

vs.

Now stack these 2-D layers to make 3-D structures

Chapter 3 - 4
 Metallic Crystal Structures
• Tend to be densely packed.
• Reasons for dense packing:
- Typically, only one element is present, so all atomic
radii are the same.
- Metallic bonding is not directional.
- Nearest neighbor distances tend to be small in
order to lower bond energy.
- Electron cloud shields cores from each other
• Have the simplest crystal structures.
We will examine three such structures...

Chapter 3 - 5
 Simple Cubic Structure (SC)
• Rare due to low packing density (only Po has this structure)
• Close-packed directions are cube edges.

• Coordination # = 6
(# nearest neighbors)

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Chapter 3 - 6
 Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
Volume of atoms in unit cell*
APF =
Volume of unit cell
*assume hard spheres
• APF for a simple cubic structure = 0.52
volume
atoms atom
a 4
unit cell 1 (0.5a) 3
3
R=0.5a APF =
a3 volume
close-packed directions
unit cell
contains 8 x 1/8 =
1 atom/unit cell
Adapted from Fig. 3.42,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e. Chapter 3 - 7
Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)
• Atoms touch each other along cube diagonals.
--Note: All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.

ex: Cr, W, Fe (), Tantalum, Molybdenum

• Coordination # = 8

QuickTime™ and a
Cinepak decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Adapted from Fig. 3.2,

Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

2 atoms/unit cell: 1 center + 8 corners x 1/8

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Chapter 3 - 8
 Atomic Packing Factor: BCC
• APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.68
3a

2a

Close-packed directions:
Adapted from R length = 4R = 3 a
Fig. 3.2(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 3e.
a
atoms volume
4
unit cell 2  ( 3a/4) 3
3 atom
APF =
volume
a3
unit cell Chapter 3 - 9
 Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)
• Atoms touch each other along face diagonals.
--Note: All atoms are identical; the face-centered atoms are shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.

ex: Al, Cu, Au, Pb, Ni, Pt, Ag

• Coordination # = 12

QuickTime™ and a
Cinepak decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Adapted from Fig. 3.1, Callister & Rethwisch

3e.
4 atoms/unit cell: 6 face x 1/2 + 8 corners x 1/8
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Chapter 3 - 10
 Atomic Packing Factor: FCC
• APF for a face-centered cubic structure = 0.74
maximum achievable APF
Close-packed directions:
length = 4R = 2 a
2a
Unit cell contains:
6 x 1/2 + 8 x 1/8
= 4 atoms/unit cell
a
Adapted from
Fig. 3.1(a),
Callister & atoms volume
Rethwisch 3e. 4 3
unit cell 4 ( 2a/4)
3 atom
APF =
3 volume
a
unit cell
Chapter 3 - 11
 FCC Stacking Sequence
• ABCABC... Stacking Sequence
• 2D Projection
B B
C
A
A sites B B B
C C
B sites B B
C sites

A
• FCC Unit Cell B
C

Chapter 3 - 12
 Hexagonal Close-Packed Structure
(HCP)
• ABAB... Stacking Sequence
• 3D Projection • 2D Projection

A sites Top layer

c
B sites Middle layer

A sites Bottom layer

a Adapted from Fig. 3.3(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

• Coordination # = 12 6 atoms/unit cell

• APF = 0.74 ex: Cd, Mg, Ti, Zn
• c/a = 1.633 Chapter 3 - 13
 Theoretical Density, 

Mass of Atoms in Unit Cell

Density =  = Total Volume of Unit Cell

nA
 =
VC NA

where n = number of atoms/unit cell

A = atomic weight
VC = Volume of unit cell = a3 for cubic
NA = Avogadro’s number
= 6.022 x 1023 atoms/mol

Chapter 3 - 14
 Theoretical Density, 
• Ex: Cr (BCC)
A = 52.00 g/mol
R = 0.125 nm
n = 2 atoms/unit cell
R
Adapted from
a a = 4R/ 3 = 0.2887 nm
Fig. 3.2(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 3e.
atoms
g
unit cell 2 52.00 theoretical = 7.18 g/cm3
mol
= actual = 7.19 g/cm3
a3 6.022 x 1023
volume atoms
unit cell mol Chapter 3 - 15
 Atomic Bonding in Ceramics
• Bonding:
-- Can be ionic and/or covalent in character.
-- % ionic character increases with difference in
electronegativity of atoms.
• Degree of ionic character may be large or small:
CaF2: large
SiC: small

Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the
Chemical Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by
Cornell University. Chapter 3 - 16
 Ceramic Crystal Structures
Oxide structures
– oxygen anions larger than metal cations
– close packed oxygen in a lattice (usually FCC)
– cations fit into interstitial sites among oxygen ions

Chapter 3 - 17
 Factors that Determine Crystal Structure
1. Relative sizes of ions – Formation of stable structures:
--maximize the # of oppositely charged ion neighbors.
- - - - - -
+ + +
Adapted from Fig. 3.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
- - - - - -
unstable stable stable
2. Maintenance of
Charge Neutrality : F-
CaF 2 : Ca 2+ +
--Net charge in ceramic
cation anions
should be zero.
--Reflected in chemical F-
formula:
A m Xp
m, p values to achieve charge neutrality
Chapter 3 - 18
 Coordination # and Ionic Radii
r cation
• Coordination # increases with r
anion
To form a stable structure, how many anions can
surround around a cation?
r cation Coord ZnS
r anion # (zinc blende)
Adapted from Fig. 3.7,
< 0.155 2 linear Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

0.155 - 0.225 3 triangular NaCl

(sodium
0.225 - 0.414 4 tetrahedral chloride)
Adapted from Fig. 3.5,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

0.414 - 0.732 6 octahedral CsCl

(cesium
chloride)
0.732 - 1.0 8 cubic Adapted from Fig. 3.6,
Adapted from Table 3.3, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
Chapter 3 - 19
 Computation of Minimum Cation-Anion
Radius Ratio
• Determine minimum rcation/ranion for an octahedral site (C.N. = 6)

2ranion  2rcation  2a

a  2ranion
       

        

 cation
 2  1  0.414
 anion  
Chapter 3 - 20
 Bond Hybridization
Bond Hybridization is possible when there is significant
covalent bonding
– hybrid electron orbitals form
– For example for SiC
• XSi = 1.8 and XC = 2.5

% ionic character  100 {1 - exp[-0.25( X Si  X C )2 ]}  11 .5%

• ~ 89% covalent bonding
• Both Si and C prefer sp3 hybridization
• Therefore, for SiC, Si atoms occupy tetrahedral sites

Chapter 3 - 21
 Example Problem: Predicting the Crystal
Structure of FeO
• On the basis of ionic radii, what crystal structure
would you predict for FeO?
Cation Ionic radius (nm) • Answer:
Al 3+ 0.053 rcation 0.077

Fe 2+ 0.077 ranion 0.140
Fe 3+ 0.069  0.550
Ca 2+ 0.100
based on this ratio,
-- coord # = 6 because
Anion
0.414 < 0.550 < 0.732
O2- 0.140
-- crystal structure is NaCl
Cl - 0.181
F-
Data from Table 3.4,
0.133 Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
Chapter 3 - 22
 Rock Salt Structure
Same concepts can be applied to ionic solids in general.
Example: NaCl (rock salt) structure
rNa = 0.102 nm

rCl = 0.181 nm

rNa/rCl = 0.564

 cations (Na+) prefer octahedral sites

Adapted from Fig. 3.5,

Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Chapter 3 - 23
 MgO and FeO
MgO and FeO also have the NaCl structure
O2- rO = 0.140 nm

Mg2+ rMg = 0.072 nm

rMg/rO = 0.514

 cations prefer octahedral sites

Adapted from Fig. 3.5,

Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

So each Mg2+ (or Fe2+) has 6 neighbor oxygen atoms

Chapter 3 - 24
 AX Crystal Structures
AX–Type Crystal Structures include NaCl, CsCl, and zinc blende

Cesium Chloride structure:

Cs  0.170
  0.939
Cl 0.181

 Since 0.732 < 0.939 < 1.0,

cubic sites preferred

Adapted from Fig. 3.6, So each Cs+ has 8 neighbor Cl-
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Chapter 3 - 25
 AX2 Crystal Structures
Fluorite structure

• Calcium Fluorite (CaF2)

• Cations in cubic sites

• UO2, ThO2, ZrO2, CeO2

• Antifluorite structure –
positions of cations and
anions reversed
Adapted from Fig. 3.8,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Chapter 3 - 26
 ABX3 Crystal Structures
• Perovskite structure

Ex: complex oxide

BaTiO3

Adapted from Fig. 3.9,

Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Chapter 3 - 27
 Density Computations for Ceramics

Number of formula units/unit cell

n(AC  AA )

VC N A
Avogadro’s number
Volume of unit cell

 = sum of atomic weights of all cations in formula unit

= sum of atomic weights of all anions in formula unit



Chapter 3 - 28
 Densities of Material Classes
In general Metals/
Graphite/
Composites/
metals > ceramics > polymers Alloys
Ceramics/
Semicond
Polymers
fibers
30
Why? Platinum
Based on data in Table B1, Callister
*GFRE, CFRE, & AFRE are Glass,
20 Gold, W
Metals have... Tantalum Carbon, & Aramid Fiber-Reinforced
Epoxy composites (values based on
• close-packing 60% volume fraction of aligned fibers
10 Silver, Mo in an epoxy matrix).
(metallic bonding) Cu,Ni
Steels
• often large atomic masses Tin, Zinc
Zirconia

 (g/cm3 )
5
Ceramics have... 4
Titanium
Al oxide
Diamond
• less dense packing 3 Si nitride
Aluminum Glass -soda Glass fibers
• often lighter elements Concrete
Silicon PTFE GFRE*
2
Polymers have... Magnesium Graphite
Silicone
Carbon fibers
CFRE*
Aramid fibers
PVC
• low packing density PET
PC
AFRE*
1
(often amorphous) HDPE, PS
PP, LDPE
• lighter elements (C,H,O)
0.5
Composites have... 0.4
Wood

• intermediate values 0.3

Data from Table B.1, Callister & Rethwisch, 3e.
Chapter 3 - 29
 Silicate Ceramics
Most common elements on earth are Si & O

Si4+

O2-

Adapted from Figs.

3.10-11, Callister &
Rethwisch 3e
crystobalite

• SiO2 (silica) polymorphic forms are quartz,

crystobalite, & tridymite
• The strong Si-O bonds lead to a high melting
temperature (1710ºC) for this material
Chapter 3 - 30
 Silicates
Bonding of adjacent SiO44- accomplished by the sharing
of common corners, edges, or faces

Adapted from Fig.

3.12, Callister &
Rethwisch 3e.
Mg2SiO4 Ca2MgSi2O7

Presence of cations such as Ca2+, Mg2+, & Al3+

1. maintain charge neutrality, and
2. ionically bond SiO44- to one another
Chapter 3 - 31
 Glass Structure
• Basic Unit: Glass is noncrystalline (amorphous)
4- • Fused silica is SiO2 to which no
Si0 4 tetrahedron
impurities have been added 
Si 4+ • Other common glasses contain
O2- impurity ions such as Na+, Ca2+,
Al3+, and B3+ 

• Quartz is crystalline
Na +
SiO2: Si 4+
O2-

(soda glass)
Adapted from Fig. 3.41,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Chapter 3 - 32
 Layered Silicates
• Layered silicates (e.g., clays, mica,
talc)
– SiO4 tetrahedra connected
together to form 2-D plane

• A net negative charge is associated

with each (Si2O5)2- unit
• Negative charge balanced by
adjacent plane rich in positively
charged cations

Adapted from Fig.

3.13, Callister &
Rethwisch 3e.

Chapter 3 - 33
 Layered Silicates (cont)
• Kaolinite clay alternates (Si2O5)2- layer with Al2(OH)42+
layer

Adapted from Fig. 3.14,

Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Note: Adjacent sheets of this type are loosely bound to

one another by van der Waal’s forces.  Chapter 3 - 34
 Polymorphic Forms of Carbon
Diamond
– tetrahedral bonding of
carbon
• hardest material known
• very high thermal
conductivity
– large single crystals – gem
stones
– small crystals – used to
grind/cut other materials
– diamond thin films
• hard surface coatings – used Adapted from Fig. 3.16,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
for cutting tools, medical
devices, etc.

Chapter 3 - 35
Polymorphic Forms of Carbon (cont)
Graphite
– layered structure – parallel hexagonal arrays of
carbon atoms

Adapted from Fig.

3.17, Callister &
Rethwisch 3e.

– weak van der Waal’s forces between layers

– planes slide easily over one another -- good lubricant
Chapter 3 - 36
 Polymorphic Forms of Carbon (cont)
Fullerenes and Nanotubes
• Fullerenes – spherical cluster of 60 carbon atoms, C60
– Like a soccer ball
• Carbon nanotubes – sheet of graphite rolled into a tube
– Ends capped with fullerene hemispheres

Adapted from Figs.

3.18 & 3.19,
Callister &
Rethwisch 3e.

Chapter 3 - 37
 Crystals as Building Blocks
• Some engineering applications require single crystals:
-- diamond single -- turbine blades
crystals for abrasives Fig. 9.40(c), Callister &
Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 9.40(c)
(Courtesy Martin Deakins,
courtesy of Pratt and
GE Superabrasives,
Whitney).
Worthington, OH. Used with
permission.)

• Properties of crystalline materials

often related to crystal structure.
-- Ex: Quartz fractures more easily

along some crystal planes than

others. (Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Chapter 3 - 38
 Polycrystals Anisotropic
• Most engineering materials are polycrystals.

Adapted from Fig. K,

color inset pages of
Callister 5e.
(Fig. K is courtesy of
Paul E. Danielson,
Teledyne Wah Chang
Albany)
1 mm

• Nb-Hf-W plate with an electron beam weld. Isotropic

• Each "grain" is a single crystal.
• If grains are randomly oriented,
overall component properties are not directional.
• Grain sizes typ. range from 1 nm to 2 cm
(i.e., from a few to millions of atomic layers).
Chapter 3 - 39
 Single vs Polycrystals
• Single Crystals
-Properties vary with
direction: anisotropic.
-Example: the modulus
of elasticity (E) in BCC iron:
E (edge) = 125 GPa
• Polycrystals
-Properties may/may not
vary with direction.
-If grains are randomly
oriented: isotropic.
(Epoly iron = 210 GPa)
-If grains are textured,
anisotropic.
E (diagonal) = 273 GPa
Data from Table 3.7,
Callister & Rethwisch
3e. (Source of data is
R.W. Hertzberg,
Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials,
3rd ed., John Wiley and
Sons, 1989.)
200 m Adapted from Fig.
5.19(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 3e.
(Fig. 5.19(b) is courtesy
of L.C. Smith and C.
Brady, the National
Bureau of Standards,
Washington, DC [now
the National Institute of
Standards and
Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)
Chapter 3 - 40
 Polymorphism
• Two or more distinct crystal structures for the same
material (allotropy/polymorphism)
iron system
titanium
liquid
, -Ti
1538ºC
BCC -Fe
carbon
1394ºC
diamond, graphite
FCC -Fe
912ºC
BCC -Fe

Chapter 3 - 41
 Crystal Systems
Unit cell: smallest repetitive volume which
contains the complete lattice pattern of a crystal.

7 crystal systems

14 crystal lattices

a, b, and c are the lattice constants

Fig. 3.20, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Chapter 3 - 42
 Point Coordinates
z
111 Point coordinates for unit cell
c center are
a/2, b/2, c/2 ½½½

000
y
a b
x Point coordinates for unit cell
 corner are 111
z 2c


Translation: integer multiple of

  lattice constants  identical
b y position in another unit cell
b
Chapter 3 - 43
 Crystallographic Directions
z Algorithm
1. Vector repositioned (if necessary) to pass
through origin.
2. Read off projections in terms of
unit cell dimensions a, b, and c
y 3. Adjust to smallest integer values
4. Enclose in square brackets, no commas

x [uvw]

ex: 1, 0, ½ => 2, 0, 1 => [ 201 ]

-1, 1, 1 => [ 111 ] where overbar represents a
negative index
families of directions <uvw>
Chapter 3 - 44
 Linear Density
Number of atoms
• Linear Density of Atoms  LD =
Unit length of direction vector

[110]
ex: linear density of Al in [110]
direction
a = 0.405 nm

# atoms
a 2
LD   3.5 nm 1
length 2a

Chapter 3 - 45
 HCP Crystallographic Directions
z
Algorithm
1. Vector repositioned (if necessary) to pass

through origin.
a2 2. Read off projections in terms of unit
cell dimensions a1, a2, a3, or c
- 3. Adjust to smallest integer values
a3
4. Enclose in square brackets, no commas
a2
a1 [uvtw]
Adapted from Fig. 3.24(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 3e. a2 -a3
2

ex: ½, ½, -1, 0 => [ 1120 ] a3

a1
2
dashed red lines indicate
projections onto a1 and a2 axes a1
Chapter 3 - 46
 HCP Crystallographic Directions
• Hexagonal Crystals
– 4 parameter Miller-Bravais lattice coordinates are
related to the direction indices (i.e., u'v'w') as
follows.
z

[ u 'v 'w ' ]  [ uvtw ]

1
u (2 u ' - v ')
3
a2
1
v  (2 v ' - u ')
- 3
a3
t  - ( u +v )
a1
w  w'
Fig. 3.24(a), Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Chapter 3 - 47
 Crystallographic Planes

Adapted from Fig. 3.25,

Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
Chapter 3 - 48
 Crystallographic Planes
• Miller Indices: Reciprocals of the (three) axial
intercepts for a plane, cleared of fractions &
common multiples. All parallel planes have
same Miller indices.

• Algorithm
1. Read off intercepts of plane with axes in
terms of a, b, c
2. Take reciprocals of intercepts
3. Reduce to smallest integer values
4. Enclose in parentheses, no
commas i.e., (hkl)

Chapter 3 - 49
 Crystallographic Planes
z
example a b c
1. Intercepts 1 1  c
2. Reciprocals 1/1 1/1 1/
1 1 0
3. Reduction 1 1 0 y
a b
4. Miller Indices (110)
x
z
example a b c
1. Intercepts 1/2   c
2. Reciprocals 1/½ 1/ 1/
2 0 0
3. Reduction 2 0 0
y
4. Miller Indices (100) a b
x
Chapter 3 - 50
 Crystallographic Planes
z
example a b c c
1. Intercepts 1/2 1 3/4 
2. Reciprocals 1/½ 1/1 1/¾
2 1 4/3  y

3. Reduction 6 3 4 a b

4. Miller Indices (634) x

Family of Planes {hkl}

Ex: {100} = (100), (010), (001), (100), (010), (001)

Chapter 3 - 51
 Crystallographic Planes (HCP)
• In hexagonal unit cells the same idea is used
z

example a1 a2 a3 c
1. Intercepts 1  -1 1
2. Reciprocals 1 1/ -1 1
1 0 -1 1 a2

3. Reduction 1 0 -1 1
a3

4. Miller-Bravais Indices (1011) a1

Adapted from Fig. 3.24(b),

Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Chapter 3 - 52
 Crystallographic Planes
• We want to examine the atomic packing of
crystallographic planes
• Iron foil can be used as a catalyst. The
atomic packing of the exposed planes is
important.
a) Draw (100) and (111) crystallographic planes
for Fe.
b) Calculate the planar density for each of these
planes.

Chapter 3 - 53
 Planar Density of (100) Iron
Solution: At T < 912C iron has the BCC structure.
2D repeat unit

(100) 4 3
a R
3

Adapted from Fig. 3.2(c), Callister & Rethwisch 3e. Radius of iron R = 0.1241 nm
atoms
2D repeat unit 1
1 atoms atoms
Planar Density = = 2 = 12.1 = 1.2 x 10 19

area a2 4 3 nm 2
m2
R
2D repeat unit 3
Chapter 3 - 54
 Planar Density of (111) Iron
Solution (cont): (111) plane 1 atom in plane/ unit surface cell

2a atoms in plane
atoms above plane

nit
atoms below plane

tu
ea
r ep
3
h a
2D 2
2
 4 3  16 3 2
area  2 ah  3 a  3  2
R   R
atoms  3  3
2D repeat unit 1
atoms = atoms
Planar Density = = 7.0 0.70 x 1019
area 16 3 2
nm
2
m2
R
2D repeat unit 3
Chapter 3 - 55
 X-Ray Diffraction

• Diffraction gratings must have spacings comparable to

the wavelength of diffracted radiation.
• Can’t resolve spacings  
• Spacing is the distance between parallel planes of
atoms.
Chapter 3 - 56
 X-Rays to Determine Crystal Structure
• Incoming X-rays diffract from crystal
d planes. et
ec
to

”
r

“1
in ray
co s
ys
X- reflections must

m
ra be in phase for
X-
in

”
“2
g
a detectable signal

“1
ng
”
extra
o i 
“2
g Adapted from Fig. 3.37,
distance
 ut 
”
o Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
travelled
by wave “2” spacing
d between
planes

Measurement of X-ray
intensity n
critical angle, c, d
(from 2 sin c
allows computation of
detector)
planar spacing, d.

c
Chapter 3 - 57
 X-Ray Diffraction Pattern
z z z
c c c

y (110) y y
a b a b a b
Intensity (relative)

x x x (211)

(200)

Diffraction angle 2

Diffraction pattern for polycrystalline -iron (BCC)

Adapted from Fig. 3.20, Callister 5e.

Chapter 3 - 58
 SUMMARY
• Atoms may assemble into crystalline or amorphous structures.
• Common metallic crystal structures are FCC, BCC, and HCP.
Coordination number and atomic packing factor are the same
for both FCC and HCP crystal structures.
• We can predict the density of a material, provided we know the
atomic weight, atomic radius, and crystal geometry (e.g., FCC,
BCC, HCP).
• Interatomic bonding in ceramics is ionic and/or covalent.
• Ceramic crystal structures are based on:
-- maintaining charge neutrality
-- cation-anion radii ratios.
• Crystallographic points, directions and planes are specified in
terms of indexing schemes. Crystallographic directions and
planes are related to atomic linear densities and planar densities.

Chapter 3 - 59
 SUMMARY

• Materials can be single crystals or polycrystalline.

Material properties generally vary with single crystal
orientation (i.e., they are anisotropic), but are generally
non-directional (i.e., they are isotropic) in polycrystals
with randomly oriented grains.
• Some materials can have more than one crystal
structure. This is referred to as polymorphism (or
allotropy).
• X-ray diffraction is used for crystal structure and
interplanar spacing determinations.

Chapter 3 - 60
 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter 3 - 61