50 Ecology Intro Text

Chapter 50
An Introduction to Ecology
and the Biosphere
PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Overview: The Scope of Ecology
• Ecology
– Is the scientific study of the interactions
between organisms and the environment
• These interactions
– Determine both the distribution of organisms
and their abundance

• Ecology
– Is an enormously complex and exciting area of
biology
– Reveals the richness of the biosphere
Figure 50.1
• Concept 50.1: Ecology is the study of
interactions between organisms and the
environment
• Ecology
– Has a long history as a descriptive science
– Is also a rigorous experimental science

Ecology and Evolutionary Biology
• Events that occur in ecological time
– Affect life on the scale of evolutionary time

Organisms and the Environment
• The environment of any organism includes
– Abiotic, or nonliving components
– Biotic, or living components
– All the organisms living in the environment, the

biota

• Environmental components
– Affect the distribution and abundance of
organisms
Kangaroos/km2 Climate in northern Australia
is hot and wet, with seasonal
> 20
drought.
10–20
5–10
1–5
0.1–1
< 0.1 Red kangaroos
Limits of occur in most
distribution semiarid and arid
regions of the
interior, where
precipitation is
relatively low and
variable from
year to year.
Southeastern Australia
has a wet, cool climate.
Southern Australia has
cool, moist winters and
Figure 50.2 warm, dry summers.
Tasmania

• Ecologists
– Use observations and experiments to test
explanations for the distribution and
abundance of species

Subfields of Ecology
• Organismal ecology
– Studies how an organism’s structure,
physiology, and (for animals) behavior meet
the challenges posed by the environment
Figure 50.3a
(a) Organismal ecology. How do humpback whales
select their calving areas?
• Population ecology
– Concentrates mainly on factors that affect how
many individuals of a particular species live in
an area
Population
(b) ecology.
What environmental
factors affect the
reproductive rate of
deer mice?
Figure 50.3b

• Community ecology
– Deals with the whole array of interacting
species in a community
(c) Community ecology.
What factors influence
the diversity of species
that make up a
particular forest?
Figure 50.3c

• Ecosystem ecology
– Emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling
among the various biotic and abiotic
components
(d) Ecosystem ecology. What

factors control photosynthetic
productivity in a temperate
grassland ecosystem?
Figure 50.3d

• Landscape ecology
– Deals with arrays of ecosystems and how they
are arranged in a geographic region
Figure 50.3e
(e) Landscape ecology. To what extent do the trees lining
the drainage channels in this landscape serve as corridors
of dispersal for forest animals?

• The biosphere
– Is the global ecosystem, the sum of all the
planet’s ecosystems

Ecology and Environmental Issues
• Ecology
– Provides the scientific understanding
underlying environmental issues
• Rachel Carson
– Is credited
with starting
the modern
environmental
movement
Figure 50.4
• Most ecologists follow the precautionary
principle regarding environmental issues
• The precautionary principle
– Basically states that humans need to be
concerned with how their actions affect the
environment

• Concept 50.2: Interactions between organisms
and the environment limit the distribution of
species
• Ecologists
– Have long recognized global and regional
patterns of distribution of organisms within the
biosphere

• Many naturalists
– Began to identify broad patterns of distribution
by naming biogeographic realms
Palearctic
Nearctic
Tropic
of Cancer Oriental
(23.5°N)
Ethiopian
Equator
Neotropical
(23.5°S)
Tropic of Australian
Figure 50.5 Capricorn

• Biogeography
– Provides a good starting point for
understanding what limits the geographic
distribution of species
Species absent
because
Yes Area inaccessible

or insufficient time
Dispersal Yes
Habitat selection
limits Behavior Yes Predation, parasitism, Chemical
distribution? No limits Biotic factors competition, disease factors
Water
distribution? No (other species) Oxygen
limit Abiotic factors Salinity
distribution? No limit pH
distribution? Soil nutrients, etc.
Temperature
Physical Light
factors Soil structure
Fire
Moisture, etc.
Figure 50.6

Dispersal and Distribution
• Dispersal
– Is the movement of individuals away from
centers of high population density or from their
area of origin
– Contributes to the global distribution of
organisms

Natural Range Expansions
• Natural range expansions
– Show the influence of dispersal on distribution
New areas
occupied Year
1996
Figure 50.7 1989
1974

Species Transplants
• Species transplants
– Include organisms that are intentionally or
accidentally relocated from their original
distribution
– Can often disrupt the communities or
ecosystems to which they have been
introduced

Behavior and Habitat Selection
• Some organisms
– Do not occupy all of their potential range
• Species distribution
– May be limited by habitat selection behavior

Biotic Factors
• Biotic factors that affect the distribution of
organisms may include
– Interactions with other species
– Predation
– Competition

• A specific case of an herbivore limiting
distribution of a food species
EXPERIMENT W. J. Fletcher tested the effects of two algae-eating animals, sea urchins and limpets, on seaweed
abundance near Sydney, Australia. In areas adjacent to a control site, either the urchins, the limpets, or both were removed.
RESULTS Fletcher observed a large difference in seaweed growth between areas with and without sea urchins.
Removing both
100 limpets and
Sea
urchins or
urchin Both limpets removing only
and urchins urchins increased
80
removed seaweed cover
Seaweed cover (%)
dramatically.
60 Only
urchins
Limpet removed
Almost no
40 seaweed grew
Only limpets removed in areas where
both urchins and
Control (both limpets were
20 urchins and present, or where
limpets present) only limpets were
removed.
0
August February August February
1982 1983 1983 1984
Figure 50.8 CONCLUSION Removing both limpets and urchins resulted in the greatest increase of seaweed cover, indicating that both
species have some influence on seaweed distribution. But since removing only urchins greatly increased seaweed growth while
removing only limpets had little effect, Fletcher concluded that sea urchins have a much greater effect than limpets in limiting
seaweed distribution.
Abiotic Factors
• Abiotic factors that affect the distribution of
organisms may include
– Temperature
– Water
– Sunlight
– Wind
– Rocks and soil

Temperature
• Environmental temperature
– Is an important factor in the distribution of
organisms because of its effects on biological
processes

Water
• Water availability among habitats
– Is another important factor in species
distribution

Sunlight
• Light intensity and quality
– Can affect photosynthesis in ecosystems
• Light
– Is also important to the development and
behavior of organisms sensitive to the
photoperiod

Wind
• Wind
– Amplifies the effects of temperature on
organisms by increasing heat loss due to
evaporation and convection
– Can change the morphology of plants
Figure 50.9
Rocks and Soil
• Many characteristics of soil limit the distribution
of plants and thus the animals that feed upon
them
– Physical structure
– pH
– Mineral composition

Climate
• Four major abiotic components make up
climate
– Temperature, water, sunlight, and wind
• Climate
– Is the prevailing weather conditions in a
particular area

• Climate patterns can be described on two
scales
– Macroclimate, patterns on the global, regional,
and local level
– Microclimate, very fine patterns, such as those
encountered by the community of organisms
underneath a fallen log

Global Climate Patterns
• Earth’s global climate patterns
– Are determined largely by the input of solar
energy and the planet’s movement in space

• Sunlight intensity
– Plays a major part in determining the Earth’s
climate patterns
LALITUDINAL VARIATION IN SUNLIGHT INTENSITY
North Pole
60°N
Low angle of incoming sunlight
30°N
Tropic of
Cancer
Sunlight directly overhead 0° (equator)
Tropic of
Capricorn
30°S
Low angle of incoming sunlight

60°S
South pole
Figure 50.10 Atmosphere

SEASONAL VARIATION IN SUNLIGHT INTENSITY
March equinox: Equator faces sun directly;

neither pole tilts toward sun; all regions on Earth
60°N experience 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of
June solstice: Northern 30°N darkness.
Hemisphere tilts toward 0° (equator)
sun; summer begins in
Northern Hemisphere;
winter begins in 30°S
Southern Hemisphere.
December solstice: Northern

Hemisphere tilts away from sun;
Constant tilt winter begins in Northern
of 23.5° Hemisphere; summer begins
September equinox: Equator faces sun in Southern Hemisphere.
directly; neither pole tilts toward sun; all
regions on Earth experience 12 hours of
daylight and 12 hours of darkness.
Figure 50.10
• Air circulation and wind patterns
– Play major parts in determining the Earth’s
climate patterns
GLOBAL AIR CIRCULATION AND PRECIPITATION PATTERNS
60°N
30°N
Descending Descending
0° (equator) dry air dry air
absorbs Ascending
moist air absorbs
moisture moisture
releases
30°S moisture
0° 23.5°
60°S
30° 23.5° 30°
Arid Arid
Figure 50.10 zone Tropics zone

GLOBAL WIND PATTERNS
Arctic
Circle
60°N
Westerlies
30°N
Northeast trades
Doldrums
0°
(equator)
Southeast trades
30°S
Westerlies
60°S
Antarctic
Circle
Figure 50.10

Regional, Local, and Seasonal Effects on Climate
• Various features of the landscape
– Contribute to local variations in climate

Bodies of Water
• Oceans and their currents, and large lakes
– Moderate the climate of nearby terrestrial
environments
2 Air cools at 1 Warm air
high elevation. over land rises.
3 Cooler
air sinks
over water.
4 Cool air over water

moves inland, replacing
rising warm air over land.
Figure 50.11
Mountains
• Mountains have a significant effect on
– The amount of sunlight reaching an area
– Local temperature
1 As moist air moves in
– Rainfall
2 Farther inland, precipitation
off the Pacific Ocean and
increases again as the air
encounters the westernmost
moves up and over higher
mountains, it flows upward, 3 On the eastern side of the
mountains. Some of the world’s
cools at higher altitudes, Sierra Nevada, there is little
deepest snow packs occur here.
and drops a large amount precipitation. As a result of
of water. The world’s tallest this rain shadow, much of
trees, the coastal redwoods, central Nevada is desert.
thrive here.
Wind
direction
East
Pacific
Ocean
Sierra
Nevada
Coast
Range
Figure 50.12
Seasonality
• The angle of the sun
– Leads to many seasonal changes in local
environments

• Lakes
– Are sensitive to seasonal temperature change
– Experience seasonal turnover

2 In spring, as the sun melts the ice, the surface water warms to 4°C
and sinks below the cooler layers immediately below, eliminating the
1 In winter, the coldest water in the lake (0°C) lies just thermal stratification. Spring winds mix the water to great depth,
below the surface ice; water is progressively warmer at bringing oxygen (O2) to the bottom waters (see graphs) and
deeper levels of the lake, typically 4–5°C at the bottom.
nutrients to the surface.
O2 (mg/L) Winter Spring O2 (mg/L)
Lake depth (m)

Lake depth (m)
0 4 8 12 0 4 8 12
8 8
16 16
0° 4°
2° 4°
24 4° 4° 24
4° 4°
4° 4°
O2 concentration 4°C 4°C
High
Medium
Low
O2 (mg/L) O2 (mg/L)
Lake depth (m)

Lake depth (m)
0 4 8 12
0 4 8 12
8 4° 22° 8
4° 20°
4° 18°
16 4° 8° 16
4° 6°
4°C 5° 24
24 4°C
Autumn Thermocline Summer
Figure 50.13 4 In autumn, as surface water cools rapidly, it sinks below the
underlying layers, remixing the water until the surface begins
3 In summer, the lake regains a distinctive thermal profile, with
warm surface water separated from cold bottom water by a narrow
to freeze and the winter temperature profile is reestablished. vertical zone of rapid temperature change, called a thermocline.

Microclimate
• Microclimate
– Is determined by fine-scale differences in
abiotic factors

Long-Term Climate Change
• One way to predict future global climate
change
– Is to look back at the changes that occurred
previously
Current
range
Predicted
range
Overlap
Figure 50.14
(a) 4.5°C warming over (b) 6.5°C warming over
next century next century
• Concept 50.3: Abiotic and biotic factors
influence the structure and dynamics of aquatic
biomes
• Varying combinations of both biotic and abiotic
factors
– Determine the nature of Earth’s many biomes
• Biomes
– Are the major types of ecological associations
that occupy broad geographic regions of land
or water
• The examination of biomes will begin with
Earth’s aquatic biomes
30°N
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Continental
Tropic of shelf
Capricorn
30°S
Key
Lakes Rivers Estuaries Abyssal zone

Intertidal zone (below oceanic
Figure 50.15 Coral reefs Oceanic pelagic
pelagic zone)
zone

• Aquatic biomes
– Account for the largest part of the biosphere in
terms of area
– Can contain fresh or salt water
• Oceans
– Cover about 75% of Earth’s surface
– Have an enormous impact on the biosphere

• Many aquatic biomes
– Are stratified into zones or layers defined by
light penetration, temperature, and depth
Intertidal zone
Neritic zone Oceanic zone
Littoral
zone Limnetic 0
zone Photic zone
200 m
Continental Pelagic
shelf zone
Benthic Aphotic
Photic zone zone
zone
Pelagic
Benthic
zone
zone
Aphotic
zone
2,500–6,000 m
Abyssal zone
(deepest regions of ocean floor)
(a) Zonation in a lake. The lake environment is generally classified on the (b) Marine zonation. Like lakes, the marine environment is generally
basis of three physical criteria: light penetration (photic and aphotic zones), classified on the basis of light penetration (photic and aphotic zones),
distance from shore and water depth (littoral and limnetic zones), and distance from shore and water depth (intertidal, neritic, and oceanic
whether it is open water (pelagic zone) or bottom (benthic zone). zones), and whether it is open water (pelagic zone) or bottom (benthic
and abyssal zones).
Figure 50.16a, b
• Lakes
LAKES
A eutrophic lake in Okavango

An oligotrophic lake in
Figure 50.17 Grand Teton, Wyoming
delta, Botswana
• Wetlands
WETLANDS
Figure 50.17 Okefenokee National Wetland Reserve in Georgia

• Streams and rivers
STREAMS AND RIVERS
A headwater stream in the The Mississippi River far

Figure 50.17 Great Smoky Mountains form its headwaters

• Estuaries
ESTUARIES
Figure 50.17 An estuary in a low coastal plain of Georgia

• Intertidal zones
INTERTIDAL ZONES
Figure 50.17 Rocky intertidal zone on the Oregon coast

• Oceanic pelagic biome
OCEANIC PELAGIC BIOME
Figure 50.17 Open ocean off the island of Hawaii

• Coral reefs
CORAL REEFS
Figure 50.17 A coral reef in the Red Sea

• Marine benthic zone
MARINE BENTHIC ZONE
Figure 50.17 A deep-sea hydrothermal vent community

• Concept 50.4: Climate largely determines the
distribution and structure of terrestrial biomes
• Climate
– Is particularly important in determining why
particular terrestrial biomes are found in
certain areas

Climate and Terrestrial Biomes
• Climate has a great impact on the distribution
of organisms, as seen on a climograph
Desert Temperate grassland Tropical forest
30
Annual mean temperature (ºC)
Temperate
broadleaf
15
forest
Coniferous
forest
0
Arctic and
alpine
tundra
−15
100 200 300 400
Annual mean precipitation (cm)

Figure 50.18

• The distribution of major terrestrial biomes
30°N
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of
Capricorn
30°S
Key Chaparral Tundra

Temperate grassland High mountains
Tropical forest
Temperate broadleaf forest Polar ice
Savanna
Coniferous forest
Figure 50.19 Desert

General Features of Terrestrial Biomes
• Terrestrial biomes
– Are often named for major physical or climatic
factors and for their predominant vegetation
• Stratification
– Is an important feature of terrestrial biomes

• Tropical forest
TROPICAL FOREST
Figure 50.20 A tropical rain forest in Borneo

• Desert
DESERT
Figure 50.20 The Sonoran Desert in southern Arizona

• Savanna
SAVANNA
Figure 50.20
A typical savanna in Kenya

• Chaparral
CHAPARRAL
Figure 50.20 An area of chaparral in California

• Temperate grassland
TEMPERATE GRASSLAND
Figure 50.20
Sheyenne National Grassland in North Dakota

• Coniferous forest
CONIFEROUS FOREST
Rocky Mountain National Park in Colorado
Figure 50.20

• Temperate broadleaf forest
TEMPERATE BROADLEAF FOREST
Figure 50.20
Great Smoky Mountains National Park in North Carolina

• Tundra
TUNDRA
Figure 50.20 Denali National Park, Alaska, in autumn

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Chapter 50

PowerPoint Lectures for

Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Is also a rigorous experimental science

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Biotic, or living components

– All the organisms living in the environment, the

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

(d) Ecosystem ecology. What

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

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Yes Area inaccessible

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Figure 50.7 1989

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– Rocks and soil

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Sunlight directly overhead 0° (equator)

Low angle of incoming sunlight

Figure 50.10 Atmosphere

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

March equinox: Equator faces sun directly;

December solstice: Northern

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

4 Cool air over water

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– Experience seasonal turnover

O2 (mg/L) Winter Spring O2 (mg/L)

Lake depth (m)

Lake depth (m)

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Lakes Rivers Estuaries Abyssal zone

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– Have an enormous impact on the biosphere

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Neritic zone Oceanic zone

A eutrophic lake in Okavango

Figure 50.17 Okefenokee National Wetland Reserve in Georgia

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings