Rice Productivity Final TNAU CBE Bala 26may2011

ENHANCING RICE PRODUCTIVITY:
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES
Vethaiya Balasubramanian
Intl. Agricultural Consultant & Trainer

Ramya Nursery Illam
42, Thadagam Road (Near TVS Nagar)
Coimbatore – 641025, India
Tel: 91-422-240-0327; mobile: 91-94863-94901
E-mail: vbalasubramanian@irrialumni.org
Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala 26 May 2011

Food-Population Race
2050
9
Global 9.5
Population Billion 8
Growth
7
AD1 - 2050
1999
6
6.0
5
1975
4.0 4
3
1930
1850 2.0 2
AD1 1650
0.5 1.0 1
0.2
AD1 500 1000 1500 2000

Food: A Weak Link
Popula-
tion
growth
Climate
change:
High
Ecosystem,
intensity
Ag., NR
agriculture
productivity,
Health
GHG 
Global NR depletion
warming  &
Climate degradation
change
Environ.
pollution
26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

Rice: Importance
Particulars Global India
Area (m ha) 155 44
Production, unmilled paddy rice (m t) 642 142
Food for (% of the total population) 50 60
Per capita food energy/calorie intake 20 30

(% of total)
Per capita protein intake (% of total) 13 18
Contribution to GDP (%) -- 18

Diverse Rice Ecosystems
Irrigated Rainfed uplands
Ranifed lowlands Saline Terraced Hill Rice
Reasons for low productivity in India

Rice Ecologies Area (mha) Production
Flood prone, 3.0 paddy (mt)
Rainfed upland ; 9.1
Irrigated 24.7 95.3
Rainfed lowland 14 32.0
Rainfed upland 4 9.4
Rainfed lowland; 31.8 Irrigated ; 56.1 Flood prone 1.3 4.7
Total 44 141.4
India Rice
Percent area in different rice ecologies
Situation
P ro d uctivity (t/h a )
Fertilizer N use (kg ha-1)

3.0
4.10 1. Irrigated : 139
2.5 2. Rainfed wetland: 58
2.0 3. Upland : 36
1.5
1.93 4. Flood-prone : 21
1.29
1.0 1.00
0.5
0.0
Irrigated Rainfed Rainfed Flood prone
lowland upland
Agriculture: Natural Resources
 Genetic: rice and other crop varieties

 Water, land, soil nutrients
 Weather elements: temperature, radiation,
atmospheric gases (e.g. CO2)
 Biological organisms: beneficial & antagonistic
 External inputs: organic materials, fertilizers, chemicals
Source: S.P. Kam, IRRI

1. GR Challenge: Biodiversity Loss
Biodiversity: Critical for a healthy planet
Land clearing  Farming with a few selected crop varieties &

animal species  Reduced biodiversity
Excessive N addition: N-sensitive plants disappear
Europe lost 25% grassland species due to N deposition, 50% of

birds due to loss of habitats to farming
India: Loss of habitats  Conflicts bet. farmers & elephants
Pollution: One of top three threats to biodiversity
Unsustainable losses: Since 1970, animal population reduced by 30%,

mangroves & sea grass by 20%, corals by 40%(UNEP)
Genetic & Biotech Options

Breeding HY Rice Varieties
 HYVs: IR8, IR36, IR64, etc.: Yield: 8-10 t ha-1
 Hybrid varieties: 10-15% higher yield
 Aerobic rice varieties: Water-efficient HYVs for
non-puddled rice growing
 Transgenic varieties: HYVs resistant to insect
pests & diseases & tolerant to flood, drought,
salinity, P deficiency, etc.
 Green Super Rice (GSR): HYVs tolerant to biotic
& abiotic stresses and with rapid early growth
A high yielding hybrid

with Xa 21 gene (from
wild rice) released by
CNRRI,China
26 May 2011
Wide Hybridization
for Disease Resistance and
Abiotic Stress Tolerance
 IR73678-6-9-B) derived from  IR73885-1-4-3-2-1-6  IR 72102-4-159-1-3-3

O. sativa cv IR64 x O. derived from O. sativa cv derived from the cross
rufipogon released as a IR64 x O. rufipogon of O. sativa x O.
national variety (AS996) in released as variety longistaminata
2002): tolerant to acid (Matatag 9) in 2002 for released as a HYV
sulfate soils (> 100,000 ha in cultivation in tungro- (NSICRc112) in 2002
Mekong Delta, Vietnam). prone areas of the in the Philippines
Philippines.
Molecular Tagging of Major Genes
for Stress Tolerance
Disease/insect Number of genes Genes tagged
Bacterial blight 24 Xa1, Xa2, Xa3, Xa4, xa5,
xa10, xa13, Xa21
Blast 30 Pi-1, Pi2, Pi4, Pi5, Pi6, Pi7,
Pi9, Pi10
BPH 11 Bph1, Bph10
Gall midge 6 Gm1, Gm2, gm3, Gm4,

Gm5, Gm6
Submergence 1 Sub1 (e.g., Swarna sub1)
Salt tolerance 1 Saltol
P-deficiency 1 Pop 1
Drought several 106 GSR (drought-tolerant)
56 GSR (multiple pests-
disease tolerant)

2. Water Use & Irrigation
Issues & Options

Water Resources: Characteristics
 Water: Most precious NR essential for life on earth

 97.5% saline: oceans, salt lakes
 2.5% freshwater: 2.24% glaziers & 0.26% renewable freshwater in
rivers, lakes, aquifers, soil moisture
 Highly variable in time & space and continuously circulating
 India: Water resources
 4% annual runoff in global rivers to support 16% of global population
 Annual rain: 1120 mm  Water flow in Indian rivers: 1863 b m3
 Annual per capita: 2340 m3 in 1980  1170 m3 in 2009 due to
population growth
 Agriculture use > 70%-80% of the freshwater
 Competition from industry, energy sector, urbanization
Per Capita Water Availability
in Selected Countries (‘000 m3)
60
1955 51.8
50
1990
40
2025
30
20.7 19.6
20
14.9
10.6 9.9 10.6
10 7.7 8.7
4.6 5.3 4 4.2
2.41.8 2.51.5 1.8 2.32.1 2
0
China India Pakistan UK USA Bangladesh Nepal

Water Loss & Degradation:
I. Natural Causes
 Tropical weather  High temp  Rapid
evaporation
 Destruction of water structures by cyclones & floods
 Poor rainfall distribution: droughts, floods  Poor
water use
 Climate change  Reduced rainfall, sea-level rise &
salinization of coastal aquifers
Water Loss & Degradation
II. Human-made Causes
 Pollution of surface waters: Dumping of sewage, industrial &

hospital wastes in water bodies
 Uncontrolled, excessive soil mining from riverbeds 
Reduced recharge of aquifers
 Encroachment & blocking of natural waterways
 Poor maintenance and/or closure village/temple tanks,
ponds, wells
 Over-exploitation of groundwater  500-600 m deep wells
 heavy metals (Arsenic)
 Poor adoption of water harvesting methods: household,
roadside, large buildings, village level, state level, national
Annual Water Demand by Various
Sectors
5% 7%
5%
2000
83%
irrigation domestic industry energy

1. 10-15% less in
share of irrigation
Annual Water Demand by Various

Sectors
2. Higher generation
of waste water
15%
2025 11%
69%
5%
irrigation domestic industry energy

Water supply 
A major economic driver in
21st Century

Coping with Water Shortages
Improve the use of all water sources
 Treat and reuse non-traditional water sources (waste
water, brackish groundwater, seawater, mine water)
 Use non-traditional water for cooling & processing in
power plants
 Switch to renewable energy technologies (wind,
solar) that do not need water for cooling
 Condense evaporation from cooling towers for reuse
 Conserve and efficiently use all water sources

Rice Farming:
Enhancing Water Use Efficiency

Crops/Varieties vs.
Water Use
Water Use Per kg Grain
Rice :3000-4000 l
Wheat :800 l
Irrigated rice variety:
For each day reduction in duration,
farmers can save 50,000 l water ha-1

Precision Land Leveling
on Water Use & Yield of Unpuddled TPR
Water use % Saving Rice yield WP
Leveling method (m3 ha-1) in water (kg ha-1) (kg m-3)
Laser leveling 6900 31 5800 0.84
Traditional leveling 9050 - 5500 0.61
† Mean of 40 farmer participatory trials (Source: R.K. Gupta, 2005)
Rice NRM-TVM-Kerala (Bala) 03 April 2008

Improving Water Use-I
 Efficient irrigation: Drip, Fertigation, AWD,
farmer-managed small irrigation systems
 Groundwater irrigation >> Surface irrigation
 Water harvesting systems:
 houses & large buildings, road & highway sides,
village level  State level  National level
 restore tanks/ponds/wells
 groundwater recharge (excess flood water)
 vegetation barriers across slopes
Improving Water Use-II
 Dryland agriculture: Farm ponds, life-saving
irrigation at critical crop stages, portable
sprinklers, solar-powered water pumps, etc.
 Better climate prediction-warning & crop
insurance systems
Agriculture & Water Use
Water use Water source
parameters Rainfall Surface Groundwater
irrigation irrigation
Water volume High Moderate Low
Reliability Low Medium to High, on-demand
variable irrigation
Crop yields Low, variable High Highest
Production risks High Low Lowest
Possibility of No Yes Yes
Precision
agriculture
Energy use for Nil Low High
irrigation
Farmers’ Low High Highest
Preference

3. Land Issues

Land Availability Issues
 Land area limited
 Land available per capita decreasing fast:
 Population growth
 Conversion of farm land to other uses:
housing, recreation, industry, infrastructure
 Degradation of land:
 desertification, salinity, etc.
 Deterioration of irrigation infrastructure
 Groundwater depletion/pollution

Land-use Change Issues
Deforestation, land Drainage of marshes,
clearing, overgrazing wetland & peats
Latin America: High deforestation Irreversible damage to land
Indonesia: 74 m ha of forest & peat

lands cleared in last 50 y; 3rd largest Release of GHG: CO2, CH4, N2O
GHG producer
India: 85 m ha cropland degraded,

13 m ha pasture overgrazed, >40 m Diversion water courses
ha forests denuded
Global: > 70% of pasture land in dry

areas overgrazed
Land Management Options
 Reduced & zero tillage
 Direct seeding under crop residues
 Vegetation cover, mulching, barriers across slopes
 Rehabilitation of degraded lands:
 Rehabilitation of saline-alkaline lands
 Recovery of nutrient depleted land: efficient, crop need-
based nutrient mgt
 Polluted land: waste treatment  nutrients recovery &
use
Planting Rice-Wheat into Loose Residues
Less weeds; better moisture conservation; &

higher OM addition
Mulch: Brown Manuring in DSR
 No additional irrigation water needed

 Reduces weed population by nearly half, controls second flush
 Recycles nutrients & supplies 15-20 kg N ha-1

4. Soil Resource Degradation
Issues & options

Soil Resource Degradation
Soil salinity &
Soil fertility
Soil erosion: alkalinity and
depletion:
water-logging
• Global mean: 11 • Inland salinity: • Nutrient mining:
T/ha/y >>> Soil Faulty irrigation, SSA, semi-arid
formation poor drainage Asia, Latin America
• India: 150 m ha • Coastal salinity: • Selective nutrient
affected by Seawater use: N, NP or NPK
erosion; amount intrusion, sea level only Soil
eroded increased rise degradation 
from 6,000 t in Secondary &
1972 to 12,000 t in micronutrient
1985 deficiencies
Progressive Depletion
of Soil Nutrients - India

Motto:
Use All Nutrient Sources
To Maintain Soil Fertility

• Leucaena, glyricidia, cassia,
& trees
calliandra, sesbania
Legume shrubs
• Sunhemp, daincha, mucuna,
annual legumes
indigo
Non-edible
legumes
• Clover, vetches Annual fodder
• Mung bean, soybean, cowpea,
legumes
pigeon pea, peas, peanut
Annual grain
Rich in N, K, Ca & Mg; Poor in P & S
BNF: Green Manures
Biosolid Wastes: Nutrients + Energy
 Home composter: 3-pots method
 Rural composting: Pile or pit methods
 Vermi-composting
 Mesophilic or Thermophilic digesters: Industrial,
municipal use
03-07 Dec 2010 ING-N2010-Delhi-N Forms-Bala

Potential Nutrient Contribution
Organic Wastes - India
Human equivalent per year

wastes (1.2 b • 6 million tons of NPK
pop):
Crop NPK equivalent

residues (700 • 0.76 million tons of
million tons)
Waste Water Management Options
Septic tanks: Individual houses
Eco-san toilets: For slum

dwellers
Electronic toilets (prototype

stage)
Biogas plants: household,

community
Biogas attached toilets

Eco-san Toilet: Waste Recycling
Developed by SCOPE
Separate receivers for feces and

urine
Feces dried & composted in a

covered bin (6 months)
Composted excreta free from E.

coli & Salmonella
Urine treated & used for irrigation

in rice fields
Treated Urine as Liquid Fertilizer for Rice
(Trial by SCOPE + TNAU)
Wastewater Agriculture
Wastewater-
based urban
●
Recovers valuable plant nutrients
●
Adds to urban food supply
agriculture: ●
Gainful occupation & income for urban poor
20 million ha (Asia, ●
Health risks for farmers & consumers?
Africa, L. America)
●
Lawns, Tree lots, Home/Terrace gardens
Grey water ●
Easy and safe to treat & use
recycling ●
Fresh vegetables & fruits from home
gardens
Animal Farming & Manure Mgt
 Reduce CH4 production: Improving feeds, feed
additives, grass
 Small farm crop-animal systems: Coupling
crops & animals  crop residues for animals &
manure for land
 Mesophilic & thermophilic digestion of
manure: Recover energy & nutrient-rich sludge,
recycled water for crops
CRRI-Rice-2010 WS- Sust NRM (Bala) 27-29 Nov 2010

Fertilizer Use:
Challenges & Options
MD Team - MD Rice PPT – New Delhi (Bala) 31 Oct 2008

Factors Controlling NUE
Crop demand
for N
Minimizing N
losses from
the system
External N
supplies
Nitrogen Flows in Food Chain, China 2005
(Ma et al 2010)
NUE (%)
Crops: 26
Animals: 11
Food Chain: 9
Add 13 kg N to
Food-Chain
1 kg Food-N to
Consumers
External N supply Options
Fine tuning fertilizer N rates & methods

Optimizing fixed N splits
Real time N management

Urease & nitrification inhibitors
Fertilizer placement: Banding, deep placement
CRNF: USG, Coated urea
Fertigation
Foliar spraying
Nano fertilizer molecules (Still under R&D)
Minimize Leakage of N into Environment 
Improve N-Use Efficiency
Plant N Demand
Synchronize
Mineral
Fertilizer
Soil N Supply INS: Legumes

Residues, Org
wastes, SOM
Precision Farming – Developed Countries
Computer-GPS-Variable Rate N Application
N Management Tools
a b
INM: Principles
Composts & manures from outside the system
1. Adding new
●
●
Fertilizers
nutrients to the ●
BNF with legumes
●
Microbial N2 fixation in wetland
system ●
Atmospheric depositions
2. Conserving
●
Soil erosion control
●
Return of crop residues
nutrients within the ●
Rotation with deep-rooted crops to reduce leaching
system losses
3. Recycling
nutrients within the ●
Higher productivity & NUE
system
MD Team - MD Rice PPT – New Delhi (Bala) 31 Oct 2008
5. Weather Elements:
4. GHG Emissions &
Climate Challenge
Climate Change &
Climate Adaptation
ICPN-2010-Custom Nut Mgt (Bala) 11-13 Aug 2010

Sector-wise Global GHG Emissions (2000)
(Source: Wikipedia)
Energy Land use
61% changes
1%
Sector-wise GHG
Emissions, India
Agriculture
28%
Wastes Industrial
2% processes
8%
Manure Rice cultivation

m anagem ent 23%
Crop residues
5%
GHG Emissions, 1%
Indian
Agriculture Em ission from
soils
12%
Enteric
ferm entation
59%
Reducing Emission of GHGs from
Rice Fields
• Improve water and fertilizer use in rice: fertilizer
tates & timing, nitrification inhibitors, controlled
release fertilizers, nano fertilizer molecules
• Improve management of livestock population and
their diet
• Increase soil carbon sequestration: minimal/zero
tillage, residue management, live mulches
• Improve energy use efficiency in agriculture:
energy-efficient farm machines, conservation
agricultural (tillage) practices
AK Shukla, CRRI
Mitigation of GHGs - N2O
Use of nitrification inhibitors
Effect of Nimin and DCD on cumulative N 2 O emission
1.4
from flooded rice, Cuttack
1.2
1
N2O flux (kg/ha)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Control Urea-N Urea-N+Nimin Urea+N+DCD
AK Shukla, CRRI
Nitrous oxide mitigation with nitrification
inhibitor
Nitrification inhibitor Mitigation (%)

Dicyandiamide (DCD) 13-42
Neem cake 10-21
Neem oil 15-21
Nimin 25-30
Coated Ca-carbide 12-29
Thiosulphate 15-20
Source: Pathak et al. (2001, 2007), Majumdar et al. (2002), Malla et al.
(2005), Jain et al. (2010)
GWP in Different RCTs in Modipuram, India
4000
Rice Wheat
GWP (kg CO2 equi. ha-1)
3000
2000
1000
0
FP Mid Bed Bed ZT ZT
drain DSR TPR DSR TPR
Calculated GWP is more in the conventional system because of

more methane emission in continuously submerged condition
in rice and more fuel consumption for tillage and irrigation.
Enhancing Rice Productivity
 Raising yield: Integrating

technologies - ICM
 Increasing cropping intensity
 Reducing crop losses & adding value
 Crop diversification
 Increasing net profitability 

Sustainability

Ecological, Sustainable Yield
Increases
 Improving soil fertility
 Judicial, balanced fert. use; reducing soil erosion; enhancing soil structure;
improving plants’ access to water & nutrients; improving crop rotations
 Avoid soil mining practices
 INM strategies for efficient nutrient use

 SSNM, IPNS, ISFM, etc.
 Seed quality, seeding rates & early crop mgt

 Timely field operations - mechanization
 Improved integrated disease and insect pest
management (IPM)
 Host plant resistance: HYVs with resistance to major stresses such as drought,
flood, salinity, insect pests and pathogens
 Improved post-harvest processing and grain quality
mgt
ICM Options  GAP
Adapted 1 seedling per

HYV hill - 25 x 25
Good seed
Inter-row
Modified
cultivation
mat
nursery
Robust,
young SSNM
seedlings
Appropriate Mechanization Options
(Timely field operations, higher labor productivity, higher
yield & quality produce)
Total Food Waste in Developed and Developing countries
H. C. J. Godfray et al., Science 327, 812-818 (2010)
Published by AAAS
Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala
Reducing Crop/Food Losses
 INM: Improving soil health

 Better flood control and drainage
 IPM: Minimizing crop damage by insect pests and
diseases
 Mechanization for timely operations
 Better harvest and post-harvest processing
 Improving storage
 Improving packaging and transportation

Post-Harvest Options
Reducing losses after production
Way Forward
Unsustainable Intensive Farming:
Any Solutions?
Organic farming : Can it be an alternative?
 Advantages claimed by proponents

 Food safety
 Environmental health
 Resource conservation
 Preservation of biodiversity
 Sustainability
 Local food economy
 Difficulties
 Population growth (9.5 billion by 2050): Can it feed all?
 Availability and processing of inputs
 High labor needs: Can automation in processing help?
Sustainable Production Systems
Organic Chemical- Intensive

intensive ecological
agriculture
Low yields
agriculture agriculture
High yields High yields
Sustainable Not sustainable Sustainable
System Sustainability
Increase profitability Environmental quality

with food security
1. Increase land productivity
Variety, Quality seed, Improved nursery 1. Air quality & CO2 prod.
mgt., Balanced fertilization, ICM Reduce residue burning
2. Increase labor productivity 2. Water quality
Appropriate mechanization options Efficient Fert., pesticide use
3. Increase resource use efficiency 3. Ground water depletion
Water-saving options, SSNM, IPM
Water-saving, farm ponds
4. Reduce grain losses 3. Global warming
Resistant varieties, IPM, IWM, Reduce
Less methane, N2O emiss.
post-harvest losses
5. Improve grain quality 5. Biodiversity erosion
Mixed planting of varieties,
6. Diversify crops & enterprises
preservation of local var

Rice NRM-TVM-Kerala (Bala) 03 April 2008

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ENHANCING RICE PRODUCTIVITY:

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

Intl. Agricultural Consultant & Trainer

Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala 26 May 2011

AD1 500 1000 1500 2000

26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

Area (m ha) 155 44

Production, unmilled paddy rice (m t) 642 142

Food for (% of the total population) 50 60

Per capita food energy/calorie intake 20 30

Per capita protein intake (% of total) 13 18

Contribution to GDP (%) -- 18

26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

Irrigated Rainfed uplands

Ranifed lowlands Saline Terraced Hill Rice

Reasons for low productivity in India

Fertilizer N use (kg ha-1)

 Genetic: rice and other crop varieties

Source: S.P. Kam, IRRI

26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

Land clearing  Farming with a few selected crop varieties &

Excessive N addition: N-sensitive plants disappear

Europe lost 25% grassland species due to N deposition, 50% of

India: Loss of habitats  Conflicts bet. farmers & elephants

Pollution: One of top three threats to biodiversity

Unsustainable losses: Since 1970, animal population reduced by 30%,

26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

A high yielding hybrid

 IR73678-6-9-B) derived from  IR73885-1-4-3-2-1-6  IR 72102-4-159-1-3-3

Gall midge 6 Gm1, Gm2, gm3, Gm4,

26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

 Water: Most precious NR essential for life on earth

26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

 Pollution of surface waters: Dumping of sewage, industrial &

irrigation domestic industry energy

Annual Water Demand by Various

irrigation domestic industry energy

26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

† Mean of 40 farmer participatory trials (Source: R.K. Gupta, 2005)

Rice NRM-TVM-Kerala (Bala) 03 April 2008

26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

Latin America: High deforestation Irreversible damage to land

Indonesia: 74 m ha of forest & peat

India: 85 m ha cropland degraded,

Global: > 70% of pasture land in dry

Less weeds; better moisture conservation; &

 No additional irrigation water needed

26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

26 May 2011 Rice Productivity-TNAU-CBE-Bala

03-07 Dec 2010 ING-N2010-Delhi-N Forms-Bala

Human equivalent per year

Crop NPK equivalent

Septic tanks: Individual houses

Eco-san toilets: For slum