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AIM

TO STUDY THE BASIC PROPERTIES OF


VARIOUS MAP PROJECTIONS WITH A
SIMPLIFIED APPROACH TO THE METHODS
OF CONSTRUCTION.
SCOPE
1. INTRODUCTION

2. DEFINITIONS

3. CLASSIFICATION OF MAP PROJECTIONS

4. SCALE

5. ORTHOMORPHISM AND EQUIVALENCE

6. CYLINDRICAL PROJECTIONS

7. AZIMUTHAL PROJECTIONS

8. CONICAL PROJECTIONS (EMPAHSIS ON


LAMBERT’S CONICAL ORTHOMORPHIC)

9. SUMMARY OF PROPERTIES AND USES


DEFINITIONS
• LATITUDE: THE ARC OF MERIDIAN INTERCEPTED
BETWEEN THE PLACE AND THE EQUATOR, MEASURED IN DEGREES,
MINUTES AND SECONDS NORTH OR SOUTH OF THE EQUATOR.

• LONGITUDE: THE SHORTER ARC OF THE EQUATOR


INTERCEPTED BETWEEN THE GREENWICH MERIDIAN AND THE
MERIDIAN OF THAT PLACE, MEASURED IN DEGREES, MINUTES AND
SECONDS EAST OR WEST OF THE GREENWICH MERIDIAN.

• GREAT CIRCLE(GC): A CIRCLE ON THE SURFACE OF THE SPHERE


WHOSE CENTRE AND RADIUS ARE THOSE OF THE SPHERE ITSELF.
A CIRCLE ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE WHICH CUTS THE EARTH INTO
TWO EQUAL HALVES e.g. EQUATOR.

• SMALL CIRCLE: A CIRCLE ON THE SURFACE OF THE SPHERE


WHOSE CENTRE AND RADIUS ARE NOT THOSE OF THE EARTH
ITSELF e.g. PARALLELS OF LATITUDE.
GREAT AND SMALL CIRCLE
DEFINITIONS
• RHUMB LINE(RL): ALSO CALLED LOXODROME. IT IS A
LINE ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE THAT HAS A CONSTANT TRUE
DIRECTION. IT IS A REGULARLY CURVED LINE THAT CUTS ALL THE
MERIDIANS AT THE SAME ANGLE e.g. PARALLELS OF LATITUDE.

• CONVERSION ANGLE(CA): THE ANGULAR DIFFERENCE BETWEEN


A GC AND THE CORRESPONDING RL.

• CONVERGENCY: (a) THE INCLINATION BETWEEN ANY


TWO MERIDIANS.
(b) THE CHANGE IN TRUE GC
DIRECTION INVOLVED IN GOING FROM ONE POINT TO ANOTHER.
CONVERGENCY = CH LONG x SINE MEAN LAT
CONVERGENCY = 2 x CA

• TOPOGRAPHIC SURFACE: ACTUAL SURFACE OF THE EARTH


TRACING THE OCEAN FLOOR TO THE TOPS OF MOUNTAINS.
PROVING CONVERGENCY = 2 x CA

CHANGE IN GC TRACK
(CONVERGENCY)

GC TRACK

CA
A B
RL TRACK

MERIDIANS

GEOMETRICALLY CONV = 2 x CA
DEFINITIONS

• GEOID: IT IS THE
PHYSICAL MODEL OF THE EARTH AND
APPROXIMATES MEAN SEA
LEVEL(MSL).

• SPHEROID: ALSO KNOWN


AS ELLIPSOID, IT IS A SMOOTH
REPRESENTATION OF THE OBLATE
SPHEROIDAL SHAPE OF THE EARTH
AND IS USED AS ITS GEOMETRIC
MODEL.
DEFINITIONS
• GRATICULE: A NETWORK OF
PARALLELS OF LATITUDE AND
MERIDIANS OF LONGITUDE IMAGINED
TO COVER THE EARTH.
MAPS AND CHARTS
• A MAP OR A CHART IS A REPRESENTATION OF THE
EARTH’S SURFACE AT SOME CONVENIENT FLAT SHEET.

• IT IS A SYSTEMATIC LAYOUT OF MERIDIANS AND


PARALLELS ON A FLAT SHEET SUCH THAT THE RESULT
DISPLAYS CERTAIN FEATURES OF THE ACTUAL
SURFACE.

• IN MOST INSTANCES IT IS A DIAGRAMMATIC RATHER


THAN A PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION AND USUALLY
CONTAINS A NUMBER OF ACCEPTED SYMBOLS.
MAPS AND CHARTS

• MAP : A MAP CONTAINS BOTH THE GRATICULE AND AN


ABUNDANCE OF GROUND FEATURES.

• CHART : A CHART CONTAINS ONLY THE GRATICULE


AND VERY FEW GEOGRAHICAL FEATURES. GENERALLY
RESERVED FOR SEA AREA REPRESENTATION.
TOPOGRAPHICAL MAP
Ptolemy’s Map 100A.D
A CHART
TYPES OF MAPS
• GENERAL PURPOSE

• SPECIAL PURPOSE

• THEMATIC

• TOPOGRAPHICAL

• CELESTIAL
PROJECTION
• PROJECTION IS THE ART OF REPRESENTING THE THREE
DIMENSIONSIONAL SURFACE OF THE EARTH ON A TWO
DIMENSIONAL SURFACE.

• ITS OBJECT IS TO REPRESENT THE SPHERICAL EARTH OR A


PART OF IT SO THAT WE CAN RECORD OR LOCATE THE
POSITIONS ON THE EARTH.

• IT ALLOWS US TO REPRESENT ALL OR SOME PART OF THE


EARTH AT A VARIETY OF SCALES ON AN EASILY
TRANSPORTABLE SURFACE.

• ALSO INCLUDES DIGITAL MAPS THAT CAN BE SHOWN ON A


COMPUTER SCREEN
PROJECTION
CLASSIFICATION OF
PROJECTIONS
1. ACCORDING TO METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION

(a) GEOMETRIC/PERSPECTIVE
(b) GEOMETRIC MODIFIED
(c) MATHEMATICAL

2. ACCORDING TO PROPERTIES

(a) EQUAL AREA


(b) ORTHOMORPHIC/CONFORMAL
(c) EQUIDISTANCE

3. ACCORDING TO PAPER ORIENTATION

(a) CYLINDRICAL
(b) CONICAL
(c) ZENITHAL
GEOMETRIC
MODIFIED

MERCATOR
MATHEMATICAL
EQUAL AREA

ALBERS EQUAL AREA


ORTHOMORPHIC

LCO
EQUIDISTANT

MERCATOR EQUIDISTANT
ZENITHAL CYLINDRICAL CONICAL
MERCATOR’S 17th CENTURY
REQUIREMENTS OF AN
IDEAL MAP
1. REPRESENTATION REQUIREMENTS

(a) AREAS REPRESENTED BY TRUE SHAPE


(b) EQUAL AREAS TO BE EQUAL
(c) ANGLE RATIO TO BE SAME
(d) DISTANCES SHOULD BEAR A CONSTANT RATIO

2. NAVIGATIONAL REQUIREMENTS

(a) RHUMB LINES SHOULD APPEAR AS STRAIGHT


LINES
(b) GREAT CIRCLES SHOULD APPEAR AS STRAIGHT
LINES
(c) COORDINATES SHOULD BE EASILY DEFINED
(d) ADJACENT SHEETS SHOULD FIT CORRECTLY
(e) COVERAGE SHOULD BE WORLD WIDE
LIMITATIONS
• EARTH AS A SPHEROID IS AN UNDEVELOPABLE SHAPE BECAUSE
NO MATTER HOW IT IS DIVIDED, IT CANNOT BE UNROLLED OR
UNFOLDED TO LIE FLAT.

• IT IS NOT FEASIBLE TO REPRESENT THE EARTH’S THREE


DIMENSIONAL SHAPE ON FLAT PLANE IN A WHOLLY ACCURATE
MANNER.

• NO PROJECTION CAN EVER GIVE A


COMPLETELY ACCURATE REPRESENTATION
OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE.
SCALE
• RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POINTS ON THE EARTH
AND THE SAME POINTS ON THE MAP IS
REPRESENTATED BY A SCALE.

• SCALE = CHART LENGTH


EARTH LENGTH

• IT IS IMPOSSIBLE FOR THIS RATIO TO BE


CONSTANT THROUGHOUT IN ANY PROJECTION.
SCALE
On the reduced earth, the scale is
constant and correct everywhere. If the
radius of a reduced earth is 6375 mm
compared with the actual earth radius of
6375 km,
The scale would be:
6375 ÷ (6375 x 1000 x 1000) = 1/1000 000
METHODS OF REPRESENTING
SCALE
1. REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION
1:500000 OR 1 IN 500000

2. STATEMENT IN WORDS
2 cms to 1 km

3. GRADUATED SCALE
REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION

It is more usual to reduce the scale to a


fraction with a numerator 1. This is a
representative fraction. In the above case
this would be 1:1000 000. This indicates
that 1 unit on the RE represents 1000 000
of the same units on the earth.
REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION

To convert one inch to ten nautical mile in to


representative fraction

Representative fraction = 1 inch / 10 NM


Representative fraction = 1 inch / 10×6080 feet
Representative fraction = 1 inch / 10×6080×12 inches
Representative fraction = 1 /729600
REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION

EXAMPLE
On a chart 5cm represents 7 NM. What is the scale ?

Representative fraction = Chart length/ Earth length


= 5cm / 7Nm x 1852 x 100
= 5 / 1296400
Divide both numerator and denominator by 5
= 1/ 259280
LARGE/SMALL SCALE
If asked whether a ¼ scale model of an aircraft is
larger or smaller than a ½ scale model, it would
appear obvious that the scale with the smaller
denominator (2) is the larger scale. The same
holds true when deciding whether a 1:500 000
(often referred to as a ½ million chart) or a 1:250
000 (1/4 million chart) is larger. As with the
aircraft models, larger scale maps will show a
smaller area in greater detail, and still remain
reasonably legible.
SCALE FACTOR
• IN MAP PROJECTIONS A REDUCED EARTH OF A
GIVEN SCALE IS USED AS THE BASIS OF A GIVEN
PROJECTION; SOME WHERE ON EACH
PROJECTION A POINT OR LINE (S) WILL EXISTS
WITH THE SAME SCALE AS THE REDUCED EARTH.
THE SCALE AT OTHER POINTS IS DETERMINED BY
SCALE FACTOR.

• SCALE FACTOR= CHART LENGTH


RE LENGTH
SCALE DEVIATION
• WHERE STATED SCALE IS CORRECT SCALE FACTOR=1.
• IT WILL BE MORE THAN 1 WHERE SCALE HAS EXPANDED
LESS THAN 1 WHERE SCALE HAS BEEN COMPRESSED.
• THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCALE FACTOR AND UNITY
DESCRIBES THE SCALE DEVIATION AND IS EXRESSED AS A
PERCENTAGE CHANGE .
• SCALE DEVIATION % = (S F –1) x 100

SCALE FACTOR AT PT.A = 1.01


SCALE OF THE MAP = 1:1,000,000
SCALE AT PT.A = 1.01 X 1/1,000,000
= 1 / 990,099
SCALE DEVIATION AT PT.A = (1.01 – 1) X 100 = 1%
ORTHOMORPHISM
• DERIVED FROM THE GREEK WORD ORTHOS
MEANING CORRECT AND MORPHIC MEANING SHAPE.

• NOT TO BE TAKEN LITERALLY, IT IS THE PROPERTY


OF REPRESENTING ANGLES AND BEARINGS
CORRECTLY.

• SHAPES ARE INEVITABLY TIED UP WITH BEARINGS.

• IT IS AN ESSENTIAL PROPERTY OF AERONAUTICAL


CHARTS.
ORTHOMORPHISM
REQUIREMENTS
• AT ANY GIVEN POINT ON THE CHART THE
SCALE MUST BE THE SAME IN ALL
DIRECTIONS, ALTHOUGH IT MAY VARY
FROM POINT TO POINT.

• THE MERIDIANS AND PARALLELS MUST CUT


EACH OTHER AT RIGHT ANGLES.
ORTHOMORPHISM : SCALE

B B

2’’ = 045° 2’’ =


035° 1 NM 1 NM
045° 1’’ =
1 NM

1’’ = 1 NM 1’’ = 1 NM 2’’ = 1 NM

A A A
ORTHOMORPHISM : MERIDIANS
AND PARALLELS
EQUIVALENCE
• A PROPERTY OF REPRESENTING THE
AREAS IN THEIR CORRECT PROPORTION
ON THE PROJECTION IRRESPECTIVE OF
POSITION.

• AERONAUTICAL CHARTS ARE NOT USUALLY


REQUIRED TO BE EQUIVALENT.
CYLINDRICAL PROJECTION
• THE DEVELOPABLE
SURFACE IS IN FORM
OF A CYLINDER.

• CYLINDER IS NORMALLY
TANGENTIAL TO THE RE
ALONG A GREAT CIRCLE
(GC).

• WHEN THE GC OF
TANGENCY IS THE
EQUATOR THE
PROJECTION IS A
NORMAL CYLINDRICAL.
CYLINDRICAL PROJECTION
• WHEN THE GC OF
TANGENCY IS OTHER
THAN THE EQUATOR
THE PROJECTION IS A
SKEW CYLINDRICAL.
NORMAL
CYLINDRICAL
PROJECTION
GEOMETRIC
CYLINDRICAL
PROJECTION
GEOMETRIC CYLINDRICAL
GEOMETRIC CYLINDRICAL
 PROJECTION
GERHARD KRAMER

gerardus mercator.jpg
MERCATOR PROJECTION
• THE SCALE VARIATION ALONG ANY PARALLEL IS
SECANT (1/ COSINE) AND ALONG MERIDIANS IS SEC2
LATITUDE.

• SCALE FACTOR ALONG THE MERIDIANS IS MADE TO


EQUAL SECΦ MATHEMATICALLY TO ACHIEVE
ORTHORMOPHISM.

• SINCE SCALE VARIES AS SECΦ, THE SAME CHART


LENGTH AT A LOWER LATITUDE WILL MEASURE A
GREATER DISTANCE THAN AT HIGHER LATITUDE i.e. THE
SCALE AT A LOWER LATITUDE IS SMALLER.

• POLES LIE AT INFINITY AND CANNOT BE REPRESENTED.


ACHIEVING ORTHOMORPHISM
IN MERCATOR
MERCATOR PROJECTION
DISTORTION OF AREAS ON A
MERCATOR
GREAT CIRCLES AND RHUMB
LINES ON A MERCATOR
MERCATOR : PROPERTIES
• ORTHOMORPHISM: THE CHART IS
ORTHOMORPHIC

• CORRECT SCALE: AT THE EQUATOR

• SCALE VARIATION: AWAY FROM EQUATOR IT VARIES


AS SEC LAT.

• CONVERGENCY: IT IS CONSTANT THROUGHOUT. IT


IS CORRECT AT EQUATOR.

• GREAT CIRCLES: CURVES CONCAVE TO THE


EQUATOR.
MERCATOR : PROPERTIES
• RHUMB LINES: STRAIGHT LINES.

• SHAPES: NOT DISTORTED FOR SMALL


AREAS. HIGHLY
DISTORTED IN HIGH
LATITUDES

• AREAS: NOT AN EQUAL AREA ROJECTION.


GREATLY EXAGGERATED IN HIGH
LATITUDES.

• FITTING: SHEETS WITH SAME MERIDIAN


SPACING WILL FIT IN NORTH-
SOUTH AND EAST-WEST.
MERCATOR : USES
• PLOTTING CHART
IN EQUATORIAL LATITUDES
• TOPOGRAPHICAL CHART

• SCALE DEPRESSION ALLOWS A GREATER AREA TO


BE COVERED.
SCALE DEPRESSION
LATITUDE SF SCALE ERROR

11° S 1.01 1% TOO LARGE

8° S 1.00 CORRECT

0° 0.99 1% TOO SMALL

8° N 1.00 CORRECT

11° N 1.01 1% TOO LARGE


SKEW CYLINDRICALS
TRANSVERSE
CYLINDRICAL
PROJECTION

• THE DEVELOPABLE SURFACE IS TANGENTIAL TO A MERIDIAN AND ITS


ANTI MERIDIAN i.e. THE AXIS OF THE CYLINDER IS PERPENDICULAR TO
THE REDUCED EARTH’S AXIS.
TRANSVERSE MERCATOR
TRANSVERSE MERCATOR
PROPERTIES
• ORTHOMORPHISM: THE CHART IS ORTHOMORPHIC.

• CORRECT SCALE: ALONG THE DATUM MERIDIAN (DM).

• SCALE VARIATION: AWAY FROM THE DM IT VARIES AS SEC


LAT.

• CONVERGENCY: CORRECT AT THE EQUATOR AND THE


POLES. NO SIMPLE FORMULA FOR OTHER PLACES.

• GREAT CIRCLES: CURVES CONCAVE TO THE DM AND ITS


ANTI-MERIDIAN. STRAIGHT LINE 90° TO THE DM IS A GC.
TRANSVERSE MERCATOR
PROPERTIES
• RHUMB LINES: CURVES CONCAVE TO THE
NEARER POLE.

• SHAPES: CORRECT FOR SMALL AREAS.

• AREAS: NOT AN EQUAL AREA


PROJECTION.

• FITTING: CAN BE FITTED IN NORTH-SOUTH


IF CHARTS HAVE THE SAME DM
AND SCALE.
SKEW CYLINDRICALS
OBLIQUE
CYLINDRICAL
PROJECTION

• THE DEVELOPABLE SURFACE IS TANGENTIAL TO ANY OTHER


GREAT CIRCLE.
OBLIQUE MERCATOR
OBLIQUE MERCATOR
PROPERTIES
• ORTHOMORPHISM: THE CHART IS ORTHOMORPHIC.

• CORRECT SCALE: ALONG THE DATUM GREAT CIRCLE (DGC).

• SCALE VARIATION: VARIES AS SEC X. X IS THE GC DISTANCE


FROM THE DGC.

• CONVERGENCY: CORRECT CLOSE TO THE DGC UPTO APPX


700 NM.

• GREAT CIRCLES: CURVES CONCAVE TO THE DGC. GCs


INTERSECTING DGC AT 90° ARE STRAIGHT LINES.
OBLIQUE MERCATOR
PROPERTIES
• RHUMB LINES: COMPLEX CURVES.

• SHAPES: CORRECT FOR SMALL AREAS.

• AREAS: NOT AN EQUAL AREA


PROJECTION.

• FITTING: CAN BE FITTED WITH THE SAME


DGC.
ZENITHAL PROJECTIONS
ZENITHAL PROJECTIONS
POLAR GNOMONIC
POLAR GNOMONIC
• A GNOMONIC PROJECTION REPRESENTS ALL GREAT
CIRCLES AS STRAIGHT LINES.

• IN POLAR GNOMONIC POINT OF TANGENCY IS ONE OF THE


POLES.

• LIGHT SOURCE IS AT THE CENTRE OF THE EARTH.

• EQUATOR CANNOT BE SHOWN.

• IT IS NOT ORTHOMORPHIC.
EQUATORIAL GNOMONIC
• POINT OF TANGENCY IS
THE EQUATOR.

• MERIDIANS APPEAR AS
STRAIGHT LINES.

• NOT ORTHOMORPHIC.
EQUATORIAL GNOMONIC
OBLIQUE GNOMONIC
OBLIQUE GNOMONIC
• POINT OF TANGENCY ANY POINT OTHER THAN THE
EQUATOR OR A POLE.

• MERIDIANS APPEAR AS RADIAL STRAIGHT LINES FROM THE


NEARER POLE.

• NOT ORTHOMORPHIC.
POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC
• LIGHT SOURCE IS AT THE
OPPOSITE POLE.

• THE EQUATOR CAN BE


REPRESENTED.
POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC
PROPERTIES
• ORTHOMORPHISM: THE CHART IS ORTHOMORPHIC.

• CORRECT SCALE: AT THE POLES.

• SCALE VARIATION: VARIES AS SEC2 (X/2). X = (90-LAT).

• CONVERGENCY: CORRECT AT THE POLES. TOO LARGE AWAY


FROM IT.

• GREAT CIRCLES: CURVE CONCAVE TO THE POLE. CAN BE


TAKEN AS A STRAIGHT LINE CLOSE TO POLES.
POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC
PROPERTIES
• RHUMB LINES: CURVES CONCAVE TO THE POLE.

• SHAPES: CORRECT NEAR POLES.

• AREAS: EQUAL AREA FOR POLAR AREAS.


OTHERWISENOT AN EQUAL AREA
PROJECTION.

• FITTING: NOT REALLY APPLICABLE.


CONICAL PROJECTIONS
CONICAL PROJECTIONS
CONICAL PROJECTIONS
• THE DEVELOPABLE SURFACE IS IN FORM OF A
CONE.

• TWO TYPES:

– PERSPECTIVE

– MATHEMATICAL
PERSPECTIVE CONIC
PROJECTIONS
• THE GRATICULE IS A LINEAR PROJECTION
USUALLLY FROM THE CENTRE OF THE SPHERE
MATHEMATICAL CONIC
PROJECTIONS
• THE GRATICULE IS POSITIONED MATHEMATICALLY
ON A CONE WHICH MAY TOUCH OR CUT THROUGH THE
SPHERE.
PERSPECTIVE CONIC
PROJECTIONS
• A CONE IS PLACED
OVER THE REDUCED
EARTH SO THAT IT IS
TANGENTIAL TO A
PREDETERMINED
PARALLEL OF
LATITUDE. THIS
PARALLEL IS CALLED
ITS STANDARD
PARALLEL.
STANDARD PARALLEL
• A STANDARD PARALLEL ON ANY
PROJECTION IS THAT PARALLEL WHICH IS
DRAWN TO THE SAME SCALE AS THE
SCALE OF THE SAME PARALLEL ON THE
REDUCED EARTH.

• IN MERCATORS, STANDARD PARALLEL IS


THE EQUATOR.
CONSTANT OF THE CONE
• WHEN THE CONE IS DEVELOPED, THE APEX
ANGLE AT THE CENTRE OF THE SECTOR ‘X’
REPRESENTS 360 DEG OF LONGITUDE. THE RATIO
OF X DEG TO 360 DEG IS KNOWN AS THE
CONSTANT OF THE CONE (OR THE CONVERGENCE
FACTOR) AND IS DENOTED BY n.
SIGNIFICANCE OF n
• CONSTANT OF THE CONE IS SINE OF ITS SEMI APEX
ANGLE / STANDARD PARALLEL.

• MERCATOR MAY BE CONSIDERED AS AN EXTREME


CASE OF A CONE HAVING AN APEX ANGLE OF 0 DEG.
HENCE VALUE OF n IN MERCATORS IS 0. AZIMUTHAL
PROJECTION CAN BE CONSIDERED THE OTHER
EXTREMITY OF THE CONE, HAVING AN ANGLE OF 180
DEG AT THE APEX. HENCE n = 1.

• CONSANT OF CONE DETERMINES THE VALUE OF


CONVERGENCY.
PARALLEL OF ORIGIN
• PARALLEL OF ORIGIN IS DEFINED AS THE PARALLEL THE
SINE OF LATITUDE OF WHICH EQUALS CONSTANT OF THE
CONE.

- IN A GEOMETRIC CONIC, THE PARALLEL OF TANGENCY


(THE STANDARD PARALLEL) IS ALSO THE PARALLEL OF
ORIGIN.

- IN MERCATORS, EQUATOR IS THE PARALLEL OF


ORIGIN.

- IN POLAR AZIMUTHAL PROJECTION PARALLEL OF


ORIGIN IS 90 DEG N/ S.
CONIC WITH TWO
STANDARD PARALLELS
• TWO PARALLELS ARE DRAWN
CORRECTLY TO SCALE BY
MEANS OF A SECANT CONE
WHICH IS A CONE IMAGINED
TO CUT THE REDUCED
EARTH’S SURFACE ALONG
TWO PARALLELS OF
LATITUDE.

• THE SCALE BETWEEN THE


TWO STANDARD PARALLELS
CONTRACTS AND THE SCALE
OUTSIDE THE STANDARD
PARALLELS EXPANDS.
LAMBERT’S CONICAL
ORTHOMORPHIC
• IT IS A CONIC ORTHOMORPHIC WITH TWO STANDARD
PARALLELS. IT IS OBTAINED BY SIMPLY DECLARING THE
SCALE TO BE CORRECT ALONG TWO PARALLELS.

• THE SCALE IS CORRECT ALONG THE TWO STANDARD


PARALLELS. IT CONTRACTS IN BETWEEN THE TWO
STANDARD PARALLELS AND EXPANDS OUTSIDE THE
STANDARD PARALLELS.

• PARALLEL OF ORIGIN OCCURS IN A POSITION SLIGHTLY


DISPLACED TOWARDS THE POLE FROM THE PARALLEL
MIDWAY BETWEEN TWO STANDARD PARALLELS.
LAMBERT’S CONICAL
ORTHOMORPHIC
SCALE VARIATION IN LCO
SPACING OF THE STANDARD
PARALLELS
1/6 RULE
• BY PLACING THE STANDARD PARALLELS ABOUT
TWO-THIRDS OF THE TOTAL NORTH-SOUTH
COVERAGE, THAT IS, ABOUT 1/6TH FROM THE
NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN LIMITS OF THE
COVERAGE, AN EVEN DISTRIBUTION OF THE
SCALE ERROR IS ACHIEVED OVER THE COMPLETE
PROJECTION
SPACING OF STANDARD
PARALLELS
GREAT CIRCLES AND RHUMB
LINES ON LCO
LCO : PROPERTIES
• ORTHOMORPHISM: THE CHART IS ORTHOMORPHIC.

• CORRECT SCALE: ALONG THE TWO STANDARD PARALLELS.

• SCALE VARIATION: CONTRACTS BETWEEN STANDARD


PARALLELS, EXPANDS OUTSIDE.

• CONVERGENCY: n X CH LONG. n = SINE OF PARALLEL OF


ORIGIN. CONVERGENCE CORRECT ONLY AT PARALLEL OF ORIGIN.
TOO HIGH AT EQUATOR, TOO LOW AT POLES.

• GREAT CIRCLES: CURVE CONCAVE TO THE PARALLEL OF


ORIGIN. PRACTICALLY TAKEN AS STRAIGHT LINE ON THE CHART.
LCO : PROPERTIES
• RHUMB LINES: CURVES CONCAVE TO THE POLE.

• SHAPES: FAIRLY PRESERVED IF THE NORTH-


SOUTH COVERAGE IS NOT
EXCESSIVE.

• AREAS: NOT AN EQUAL AREA PROJECTION.

• FITTING: WILL FIT NORT-SOUTH AND EAST-


WEST IF SCALE AND STANDARD
PARALLELS ARE THE SAME.
USE OF LAMBERTS
• PLOTTING CHART

• TOPOGRAPHICAL CHARTS

WORLD WIDE USE


• RADIO AID CHARTS
EXCEPT POLAR
AREAS.
• AIRWAYS CHARTS

• METEOROLOGICAL SYNOPTIC CHARTS


MERCATOR
TRANSVERSE MERCATOR
OBLIQUE MERCATOR
POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC
LAMBERT’S CONICAL
ORTHOMORPHIC
SUMMARY OF PROPERTIES
MERCATOR LAMBERT POLAR TRANS OBLIQUE

CORRECT EQUATOR STANDARD POLE ALONG DM ALONG DGC


SCALE PARALLEL
VARIATION SEC LAT. CONTRACT EXPANDS EXPANDS AS EXPANDS AS
INCREASES BETWEEN SP SEC2 (X/2) SEC GC DIST SEC GC DIST
WITH EXPAND FROM DM FROM DGC
INCREASE IN OUTSIDE
LAT
CONV 0°. CORRECT n x CH LONG 1°. CORRECT CORRECT AT CORRECT
AT EQUATOR AT POLES EQUATOR & CLOSE TO
POLES DGC

GC CONCAVE TO CONCAVE TO CONCAVE TO CONCAVE TO CONCAVE TO


EQUATOR n POLE DM & ANTI DGC
DM

RL STRAIGHT CONCAVE TO CONCAVE TO CONCAVE TO CONCAVE TO


LINE POLE POLE NEARER NEARER
POLE POLE
SUMMARY OF PROPERTIES
MERCATOR LAMBERT POLAR TRANS OBLIQUE

MERIDIANS STRAIGHT STRAIGHT STRAIGHT CONCAVE TO 90° TO DGC


LINES CONVERGIN CONVERGIN DM & ANTI STRAIGHT
G LINES G LINES DM LINES. REST
CONCAVE TO
DGC
PARALLELS STRAIGHT CURVED CIRCLES ELLIPSES CONCAVE TO
LINES TOWARDS NEARER
POLES POLE.
EQUATOR IS
A SINE
CURVE
SHAPES CORRECT CORRECT IF CORRECT CORRECT CORRECT
CLOSE TO N-S CLOSE TO FOR SMALL FOR SMALL
EQUATOR. COVERAGE POLES AREAS AREAS
DISTORTED NOT EXCESS
IN HIGH LAT
CONCLUSION
• BEST PLOTTING CHARTS • BEST TOPOGRAPHICAL
CHARTS

• 12°N TO 12°S – MERCATOR • GENERAL – LAMBERT


MERCATOR
• 12° TO 74° – LAMBERT
• WORLD WIDE – TRANSVERSE
• 74° TO 90° – POLAR

• SPECIAL – OBLIQUE
TRANSVERSE

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