Water Conditioning

SO WHAT IS IT ABOUT WATER THAT MAKES IT SO IMPORTANT TO US?

Water is of major importance to all living things. Up to 60 percent of the human body is Water. Therefore the quality of Water we drink is very important. The Drinking Water should be totally clean, pure and free of any disease causing MICROBES, and thats why it should be properly Treated and DISINFECTED before using it for drinking purpose Water treatment transforms raw surface and groundwater into safe drinking water. Water treatment involves two major processes: physical removal of solids and chemical disinfection

Water
A polar compound and universal solvent Colourless Odourless and tasteless but a very unique liquid. Exist in three allotropic forms: Solid, liquid, gas

Unique property of water

Density:01 gram/cm3 at 4 deg centigrade Posses unique property of irregular expansion. Its contracts up to 4 deg and then starts expansion on freezing. It expands about 10 % on freezing. water can be superheated and super cooled by adding sodium chloride, thus very useful in all the unit operations and unit processes.

Some uses
As solvent Moderator Industrial solvent Steam generation Many others

Types of Impurities
Suspended impurities. (due to clay or organic material) Not able to be dissolved and present in surface water and visible and these may be removed by filtration process Dissolved impurities these impurities are due to internal character of water as water is polar compound and may dissolve polar materials.

What is hardness?
Hardness is
the ability of the water to consume excessive amounts of soap before foaming OR the ability of the water to produce scale in water heaters and boilers where water temperature is increased dramatically hardness is measured in terms of parts per million (PPM) or grains per gallon of CaCO3. 01 grain of CaCO3 per gallon = 17.1ppm

Causes of Hardness.
Water hardness is principally caused by:
calcium ions magnesium ions

Source of calcium and magnesium ions

geological formations

Causes & Sources of Hardness

Cations causing hardness

Anions

Ca++ Mg++ Sr++ Fe++ Mn++

HCO3SO4= ClNO3SiO3=

Types of hardness
Carbonate( temporary hardness)
CO3, HCO3

Non-carbonate ( permanent hardness)

SO4, Cl, NO3

The maximum level of hardness considered for public supply is 300 to 500 mg/l, though many customers object to water harder than 150 mg/l.

Disadvantages of hardness
excessive soap consumption during laundering scale-formation in hot water heaters and pipes. Quality of product like food industry gets affected Textile industry gets affected due to impurities in water ( in terms of colour) Dissolved impurities may cause ion exchange and less product Pharmaceutical industry may get affected by bad water quality.

Conti.
Water should be colourless, odourless, tastless and free from pathogenic bacteria for dairies water for beverages should not be alkaline water for cooling systems should be non corrosive and non scale forming water should be free from microorganism for distilleries and sugar industry. Water for laundries should be soft.

Degree of Hardness Hardness Concentration (mg/l) 60 120 (Moderately Hard) 120 180 (Hard) 180 and Over (Very Hard)

softening
In precipitation softening, lime (CaO) and soda ash (Na2CO3) are used to precipitate calcium and magnesium from water. Lime treatment can also: kill bacteria remove iron help in clarification of surface water (coagulant)

Lime
Lime is commercially available in the forms of:
quicklime hydrated lime

Quicklime
available in granular form contains minimum of 90% CaO magnesium oxide is the primary impurity

Hydrated Lime
contains about 68% CaO

Slurry lime is written as Ca(OH)2.

Water Softening
The removal of divalent metal ions Precipitation/settling or IX resins

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 Mg(HCO3)2 + 2Ca(OH)2

2CaCO3 +

2H2O

Mg(OH)2+ 2CaCO3

Note that the CaCO3 precipitated is chemically identical to limestone

Typical water treatment process with lime softening

Info..

Water

Seawater contains about 35,000 ppm of dissolved salts thus making seawater unfit for agricultural and domestic use. Safe drinking water generally contains less than 1000 ppm of dissolved solids (salts).

ASPECTS A CHEMIST IS CONCERNED ABOUT: 1. Hardness - relates to the amount of Ca, Mg, and other salts dissolved in water.

2. Salinity - relates to the concentration of salts in water. Fresh water should contain 1000 ppm or less of dissolved solids. 3. pH - relates to the measure of acidity or alkalinity of water. pH 6 to 9 preferred 4. Turbidity - relates to the clarity of water, the amount of suspended matter in water. 5. Color, odor, taste- Organic matter and minerals may produce a distinct color. Minerals, bacteria and dissolved gases are responsible for taste and odor.

Water
Four techniques to soften hard water: 1. DISTILLATION: The water is boiled, and the steam formed is condensed into a liquid again, leaving the minerals behind in the distilling vessel. Commercial stills are able to produce hundreds of liters of distilled water per hour. 2. CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM PRECIPITATION: Calcium and magnesium ions are precipitated from hard water by adding sodium carbonate and lime. Insoluble calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide are precipitated and are removed by filtration or sedimentation. 3. ION EXCHANGE: Hard water is softened as it is passed through a bed or tank of zeolite-a complex sodium aluminum silicate. Sodium ions replace objectionable calcium and magnesium ions, and the water is softened: Na2(zeolite)(s) + Ca2+ (aq) pCa(zeolite)(s) + 2Na+ (aq) The zeolite is regenerated by back-flushing with concentrated sodium chloride solution, reversing the foregoing reaction. 4. DEMINERALIZATION: Both cations and anions are removed by a two-stage ionexchange system. Special synthetic organic resins are used in the ion-exchange beds. In the first stage metal cations are replaced by hydrogen ions. Second stage anions are replaced by hydroxide ions. The hydrogen and hydroxide ions react and you get pure, mineral-free water.

Coagulation
is the destabilization of colloids by neutralizing the forces that keep them apart. Cationic coagulants provide positive electric charges to reduce the negative charge of the colloids. As a result, the particles collide to form larger particles (flocs). Rapid mixing is required to disperse the coagulant throughout the liquid. Care must be taken not to overdose the coagulants as this can cause a complete charge reversal and restabilize the colloid complex.

Coagulation removes dirt and other particles suspended in water. alum and other chemicals are added to water to form tiny sticky particles called floc which attract the dirt particles. The combined weight of the dirt and the alums (floc) become heavy enough to sink to the bottom during sedimentation.

conti..
Typically, alum is added (aluminum sulfate) or ferric chloride or sulfate to the water with rapid mixing and controlled pH conditions Insoluble aluminum or ferric hydroxide and aluminum or iron hydroxo complexes are formed These complexes entrap and adsorb suspended particulate and colloidal material. And separation takes place under the action of gravity.

Flocculation
is the action of polymers to form bridges between the flocs. and bind the particles into large agglomerates or clumps. Bridging occurs when segments of the polymer chain adsorb on different particles and help particles aggregate. An anionic flocculants will react against a positively charged suspension, adsorbing on the particles and causing destabilization either by bridging or charge neutralization. In this process it is essential that the flocculating agent be added by slow and gentle mixing to allow for contact between the small flocs and to agglomerate them into larger particles.

Conti
Flocculation:

Slow mixing (flocculation) that provides for a period of time to promote the aggregation and growth of the insoluble particles (flocs). The particles collide, stick together and grow larger The resulting large floc particles are subsequently removed by gravity sedimentation (or direct filtration) Smaller floc particles are too small to settle and are removed by filtration

Chlorination
Chlorine is the most common cost-effective means of disinfecting water The addition of a small amount of chlorine is highly effective against most bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. But cysts (durable seed-like stages) formed by parasitic protozoa such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia can survive chlorine.

Chlorine is applied to water in one of three forms: elemental chlorine (chlorine gas), hypochlorite solution (bleach), or dry calcium hypochlorite. All three forms to produce free chlorine in water

Membrane Properties
Inert & non-biodegradable Resistant to pressure, fouling, Resistant to cleaning agents & temperature Uniform pore distribution & high porosity Durable, neutral & hydrophilic, Easy to clean and regenerate

MEMBRANE PROCESSES
Membrane Process Operating Pressure (Bar) Pore Size (Micrometer) Allowable Componen ts Retained Componen ts

Reverse Osmosis (RO)

30 60
(440 - 880 psi)

<0.001

Water

Bacteria, Protein, Salts & Sugar Bacteria, Protein, & Sugar

Nano Filtration 20 40 (290 - 585 psi) (NF) Ultra Filtration (UF) 1 -10
(14.7 - 145 psi)

0.001- 0.005

Salts & Water

0.005-0.01

Salts , Water & Bacteria, Sugar Protein, Salts , Water, Sugar & Protein Bacteria

Micro Filtration <1 (< 14.7psi) (MF)

>0.01

Membrane materials
The most commonly used membrane materials are: Polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) Polyethylsulphone (PES) Polyethylene (PE) Polypropylene (PP)

Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis is a process for desalting water using membranes that are permeable to water but essentially impermeable to salt. Pressurized water containing dissolved salts contacts the feed side of the membrane; water depleted of salt is withdrawn as a low-pressure permeate.

Terms of Reveres Osmosis

Flux The number of gallons of permeate produced per square foot of membrane area per day (GFD). Generally, flux rates are determined by the feed water Silt Density Index.

Fouling When gelatinous coatings, colloidal masses or dense bacterial growth form a compacted crust on membrane or filter surfaces which blocks further flow.

Membrane Filtration membranes are thin polymer films that are permeable to water and other fluids. Microporous membrane filters have measurable pore structures which physically remove particles or microorganisms larger than pore size. Ultrafiltration membranes, (sometimes called molecular sieves), also remove molecules larger than a specified molecular weight. Reverse osmosis membranes are permeable to water molecules, and very little else, rejecting even dissolved ions in water.

Conti.
Osmosis The diffusion of a solvent through a semipermeable membrane from a less concentrated solution to a more concentrated solution. Percent Recovery In reverse osmosis, the ratio of pure water output to feed water input. The recovery that the membranes operate at is called internal or membrane recovery. The recover that the RO machine operates at is called overall or machine recovery. Percent Rejection In reverse osmosis, the ratio of impurities removed to total impurities in the incoming feed water. The formula for calculating percent rejection is 100 X (feed product)/feed Permeate In reverse osmosis, the water that diffuses through the membrane, thereby becoming purified water.

How Reverse Osmosis Works A semi permeable membrane, like the membrane of a cell wall or a bladder, is selective about what it allows to pass through, and what it prevents from passing. These membranes in general pass water very easily because of its small molecular size; but also prevent many other contaminants from passing by trapping them. Since the water with the less concentrated solution seeks to dilute the more concentrated solution, water will pass through the membrane from the lower concentration side to the greater concentration side. Eventually, osmotic pressure as the pressure created by the difference in water levels) will counter the diffusion process exactly, and an equilibrium will form.

How RO works,

Membrane Cleaning
A good pretreatment system is essential to achieve a long reverse osmosis membrane life, but pretreatment must be backed up by an appropriate cleaning schedule. Generally this is done once or twice a year, but more often if the feed is a problem water. As with pretreatment, the specific cleaning procedure is a function of the feed water chemistry, the type of membrane, and the type of fouling. A typical cleaning regimen consists of flushing the membrane modules by re circulating the cleaning solution at high speed through the module, followed by a soaking period, followed by a second flush, and so on.

Conti..
chemical cleaning agents commonly used are acids, alkalis, detergents, Acid cleaning agents such as hydrochloric, phosphoric, or citric acids effectively remove common scaling compounds. With cellulose acetate membranes the pH of the solution should not go below 2.0 or else hydrolysis of the membrane will occur. Oxalic acid is particularly effective for removing iron deposits. Acids such as citric acid are not very effective with calcium, magnesium, or barium sulfate scale; To remove bacteria, silt or precipitates from the membrane, alkalis combined with surfactant cleaners are often used.

Applications
Approximately one-half of the reverse osmosis systems currently installed are desalinating brackish or seawater. Another 40% are producing ultra pure water for the electronics, pharmaceutical, and power generation industries. The remainder are used in small niche applications such as pollution control and food processing

Brackish Water Desalination

The salinity of brackish water is usually between 2000 and 10 000 mg/L. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommendation for potable water is 500 mg/L, so up to 90% of the salt must be removed from these feeds. Early cellulose acetate membranes could achieve this removal easily, so treatment of brackish water was one of the first successful applications of reverse osmosis. Several plants were installed as early as the 1960s.

diagram

What is Electro dialysis

An anionic membrane with fixed positive groups excludes positive ions but is freely permeable to negatively charged ions. Similarly a cationic membrane with fixed negative groups excludes negative ions but is freely permeable to positively charged ions,

Electro dialysis
In an electro dialysis system, anionic and cationic membranes are formed into a multi cell arrangement built on the plate-and-frame principle to form up to 100 cell pairs in a stack. The cat ion and anion exchange membranes are arranged in an alternating pattern between the anode and cathode. Each set of anion and cat ion membranes forms a cell pair.

Applications Brackish Water Desalination

Brackish water desalination is the largest application of electro dialysis. The competitive technologies are ion exchange for very dilute saline solutions, below 500 ppm, and reverse osmosis for concentrations above 2000 ppm. In the5002000 ppm range electro dialysis is often the low-cost process. One advantage of electro dialysis applied to brackish water desalination is that a large fraction, typically 8095% of the brackish feed, is recovered as product water. However, these high recoveries mean that the concentrated brine stream produced is five to twenty times more concentrated than the feed. The degree of water recovery is limited by precipitation of insoluble salts in the brine.