Arrhenius concept:

Arrhenius acid is a substance that produces H+ (H3O+) in water

Arrhenius base is a substance that produces OH- in water

Strong acids: completely dissociate in aqueous solution.

Examples:

HCl(aq)

H+(aq) +

Cl-(aq)

Weak acids: dissociate partially with a high proportion of the acid remaining in the undissociated form.
Example:

CH3COOH(aq)

CH3COO- (aq) + H+(aq)

Strong Acid

Weak Acid

Arrhenius concept is correct but limited because: y it applies only to aqueous solutions y allow for only one kind of base (the hydroxide ion)

Brnsted-Lowry model
A Brnsted acid is a proton donor A Brnsted base is a proton acceptor

base

acid

acid

base

A Brnsted acid must contain at least one ionizable proton!

4.3

According to Brnsted-Lowry theory: y Acid salts (NaHSO4) and ammonium ions are considered as acids y All anions, water, ammonia, oxides and hydroxide ions are considered as bases.
Acid HSO4NH4+ 2H3O+ H3O+ + + + + Base OHOHS2NH3 Base SO42NH3 2H2O H2O + + + + Acid H2O H2O H2S NH4+

Identify each of the following species as a Brnsted acid, base, or both. (a) HI, (b) CH3COO-, (c) H2PO4HI (aq) H+ (aq) + Br- (aq) Brnsted acid

CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq) H2PO4- (aq)

CH3COOH (aq)

Brnsted base

H+ (aq) + HPO42- (aq) H3PO4 (aq)

Brnsted acid Brnsted base

H2PO4- (aq) + H+ (aq)

4.3

Acids
y

Acids are often formed from the reaction between an oxide of a non-metal and water.

y Examples:
SO3 + H2 O H2 SO4 (aq) sulphuric acid

CO2 + H2 O

H2 CO3 (aq)

carbonic acid

Acids Hydrochloric acid nitric acid

COMMON ACIDS

Chemical formula HCl HNO3 H2 SO4 H3 PO4 H2 CO3 H NO2 These are sometimes used These are often used

sulphuric acid Phosphoric acid carbonic acid nitrous acid

sulphurous acid

H2 SO3

Properties of Acids
1- Have a sour taste. Vinegar owes its taste to acetic acid. Citrus fruits contain citric acid. 2- Turn litmus paper to RED, Corrosive to metals 3- React with certain metals to produce salts and hydrogen gas. 2HCl (aq) + Mg (s) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

4- React with carbonates and bicarbonates to produce salt, carbon dioxide gas and water 2HCl (aq) + CaCO3 (s) . CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Properties of Acids
5- React with bases and neutralize them
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O(l)

6- All acids are electrolytes and give hydrogen ions when dissolved in water (Aqueous acid solutions conduct electricity)
HCl(aq) H2SO4 (aq) HNO3 (aq) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) 2H+ (aq) + H+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) NO3 - (aq)

Bases
y The oxides of metals belong to a group,

which can be thought of as opposite to acids. They are called bases. y Some hydroxides of metals are also bases

Base

Chemical Formula

Copper (II) Oxide Iron (II) Oxide

Common Bases

CuO FeO ZnO NaOH KOH Ca(OH)2

These bases are soluble in water This is marginally soluble in water These bases are Insoluble in water

Zinc Oxide Sodium Hydroxide Potassium Hydroxide Calcium Hydroxide

Note
y The bases which dissolve in water are given a

special name: ALKALIS. y The most common alkalis are sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH). y There is one unusual alkali and that is ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH). In this compound the ammonium ion, NH4+, is present instead of a metal.

1 All alkalis turn litmus paper BLUE. 2 Bases feel slippery, taste bitter, and become less

basic when mixed with acid 3 Alkalis react with many metal ions. They form precipitates.
CuSO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) Cu (OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

The above reaction may be written as an ionic equation:

Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2Na+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq (aq)+ SO42- (aq) Cu (OH)2(s) + 2Na+

[NB: Note that the precipitate (Cu (OH)2(s)) does not ionize in solution]

Q1: Write down the following equation as an ionic equation: FeSO4 (aq) + 2KOH (aq) Fe(OH)2 (s) +K2SO4 (aq) Answer: Fe2+ (aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2K+ (aq) + OH-(aq) + 2K+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)

Fe(OH)2 (s)

4- An acid and a base react together to form a salt and water. CuO(s) + H2SO4 (aq) Base Acid CuSO4 (aq) + H2O(l) Salt Water

5- All bases contain oxide or hydroxide ions. Examples: a. Copper (II) oxide CuO contains Cu2+ and O2(oxide) ions b. Sodium Hydroxide NaOH contains Na+ and OH- (hydroxide) ions. (NB: All alkalis are soluble in water to give solutions, which contain hydroxide ions)

Questions: 1 Write an equation for the combustion of potassium (reaction with oxygen). Will the oxide formed be acidic or basic? K(s) + O2(g) K2O(s)
2 Write down the equation for the reaction of calcium

carbonate and nitric acid. CaCO3 (aq) +HNO3 (aq) CO2(g) + H2O (l)

Ca(NO3)2 (aq) +

3 Write down the equation for the reaction between:

a. potassium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid KOH(aq) + HCl(aq) KCl(aq) + H2O (l) b. sodium hydroxide and sulphuric acid NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)
Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

1 Identify the compounds in the following list as

acids (A), bases (B) or salts (S) NaNO3 (S) HCl (A) Fe(OH)2 (B) FePO4 (S) H3PO4 (A) CuO (B) Na2SO4 (S) Na2O (B)

KBr (S) LiOH (B)

LiI (S) H2SiO3 (A) (NH4)3PO4 (S) Ba(OH)2 (B) CoSO4 (S)

Strengths of Acids and Alkalis

y Electrolytes y Acids and alkalis are electrolytes : split up

(dissociate) into ions when dissolved in water y A strong acid dissociates completely into its ions e.g. hydrochloric acid (which donate all their protons to water)
2HCl(aq) 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)

y The dissociation of a strong acid is normally indicated

by a single headed arrow

A weak acid only dissociates partially into its ions (e.g. ethanoic acid-commonly called acetic acid) CH3COOH(aq) H+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)

The dissociation of a weak acid is normally showed with an equilibrium arrow (both reactants and products are present in solution)

y The same applies to alkalis. Strong alkalis completely break up into ions. y Example of strong alkali dissociation: y NaOH(aq)

Na+(aq)

OH-(aq)

Weak alkalis are only partly broken up into ions when dissolved in water. y Example of weak alkali dissociation:
y NH4OH(aq)

NH4+(aq)

OH-(aq)

Strong Electrolyte 100% dissociation NaCl (s)

H2O

Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Weak Electrolyte not completely dissociated CH3COOH CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)

Strong Acids are strong electrolytes HCl (aq) + H2O (l) HNO3 (aq) + H2O (l) HClO4 (aq) + H2O (l) H2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) H3O+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) H3O+ (aq) + ClO4- (aq) H3O+ (aq) + HSO4- (aq)

Weak Acids are weak electrolytes HF (aq) + H2O (l) HNO2 (aq) + H2O (l) HSO4- (aq) + H2O (l) H2O (l) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + F- (aq) H3O+ (aq) + NO2- (aq) H3O+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) H3O+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Strong Bases are strong electrolytes NaOH (s) KOH (s)

H2O H2O

Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

K+ (aq) + OH- (aq) Ba2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq)

Ba(OH)2 (s)

H2O

Weak Bases are weak electrolytes F- (aq) + H2O (l) NO2- (aq) + H2O (l) OH- (aq) + HF (aq) OH- (aq) + HNO2 (aq)

Conjugate acid-base pairs: The conjugate base of a strong acid has no measurable strength. H3O+ is the strongest acid that can exist in aqueous solution. The OH- ion is the strongest base that can exist in aqeous solution.

Acid Hydrochloric Acid Nitric Acid Sulphuric Acid Phosphoric Acid Carbonic Acid Sulphurous Acid Acetic Acid (Ethanoic Acid)

Strength of Acid These acids are almost completely ionized. These are STRONG ACIDS

These acids are not completely ionized. These are WEAK ACIDS

Alkali

Strength of Alkali These are STRONG ALKALI

Sodium Hydroxide Potassium Hydroxide

Calcium Hydroxide Ammonium Hydroxide

They are WEAK ALKALI These acids are not completely ionized.

pH A Measure of Acidity
pH = -log [H+]

Solution Is neutral acidic basic

[H+] = [OH-] [H+] > [OH-] [H+] < [OH-]

At 250C [H+] = 1 x 10-7 [H+] > 1 x 10-7 [H+] < 1 x 10-7

pH = 7 pH < 7 pH > 7

pH

[H+]

[H+] 1 X 100 1 x 10-1 1 x 10-2 Acids 1 x 10-3 1 x 10-4 1 x 10-5 1 x 10-6 Neutral 1 x 10-7 1 x 10-8 1 x 10-9 1 x 10-10 Bases 1 x 10-11 1 x 10-12 1 x 10-13 1 x 10-14

pH 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Example HCl Stomach acid Lemon juice Vinegar Soda Rainwater Milk Pure water Egg whites Baking Soda Tums antacid Ammonia Mineral Lime - Ca(OH)2 Drano NaOH Strong alkali Weak Alkali Neutral Weak Acid Strong Acid

pOH = -log [OH-] [H+][OH-] = Kw = 1.0 x 10-14 -log [H+] log [OH-] = 14.00 pH + pOH = 14.00

The pH of rainwater collected in a certain region of the northeastern United States on a particular day was 4.82. What is the H+ ion concentration of the rainwater? pH = -log [H+] [H+] = 10-pH = 10-4.82 = 1.5 x 10-5 M The OH- ion concentration of a blood sample is 2.5 x 10-7 M. What is the pH of the blood? pH + pOH = 14.00 pOH = -log [OH-] = -log (2.5 x 10-7) = 6.60 pH = 14.00 pOH = 14.00 6.60 = 7.40

Indicators
y a substance undergoing a visual change with changes

in pH. y a weak acid or a weak base which dissociates with changes in the pH of the medium HIn (aq) H+ (aq) + In- (aq) Undissociated dissociated (one color) (different color)
y The undissociated form of the indicator has a

different color than the dissociated form

y color changes will be used to show when a solution

changes from being acidic to alkaline or from being alkaline to acidic

Indicator Phenol red Neutral red Cresol red Thymol blue Phenolphthalein pH Ran ge 6.4-8.0 6.8-8.0 7.2-8.8 8.0-9.6 8.010.0 Quantity per 10 ml 1 drop 0.1% aq. soln. 1 drop 0.1% soln. in 70% alc. 1 drop 0.1% aq. soln. 1-5 drops 0.1% aq. soln. Colour in Acid yellow red yellow yellow Colour in Base Red Yellow Red Blue Red

1-5 drops 0.1% soln. in colorless 70% alc.

Salts
Preparation and Properties Salts are ionic compounds
a positive ion a metal ion or an ammonium ion  a negative ion and is a non-metal


1.

Reaction between an Acid and a Base The positive ion in the salt comes from the base and the negative ion comes from the acid

y Sulphuric acid forms salts called SULPHATES.

y Calcium Sulphat - CaSO4 formed from H2SO4+

Ca (OH)2
y Sodium Sulphate Na2SO4 formed from H2SO4

+ NaOH
y Ammonium Sulphate (NH4)2SO4 formed from

H2SO4 + NH4OH

Q2: Which Alkalis and acids would you use to make each of these

salts?

a K2SO4 H2SO4+ KOH b Mg(OH)2 NaOH + Mg(NO3)2 c Na3PO4 H3PO4+ NaOH

Q3: Use your knowledge of the charges on ions to work out the formulae of the following salts:

a magnesium chloride b potassium nitrate c calcium phosphate d sodium carbonate

Mg 2+ , ClK+ , NO3Ca2+ , PO43Na+, CO32-

MgCl2 KNO3 Ca3(PO4)2 Na2CO3

y 2. Reaction between a Metal and an Acid

Some metals react with an acid to produce a salt and hydrogen gas. Zn (s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

3. Reaction between an Acid and a Carbonate

Most carbonates react with an acid to form a salt and carbon dioxide gas and water CuCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CuCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

y Q4: Write a balanced equation for the reaction

between magnesium carbonate and nitric acid.

K2CO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) H2O(l)

2KNO3(aq) + CO2(g) +

Methods for preparing Insoluble Salts:

1

Ionic Precipitation Reactions (double decomposition)

yTwo solutions of salts are mixed. Oppositely charged ions (one

from each solution) combine to form an insoluble salt, which precipitates. Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI (aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) PbI2(s) + KNO3(aq) PbSO4(s) + 2HNO3(aq)

yAn ionic equation can be written and the spectator ions removed

to give

Pb2+ (aq)

2I-(aq)

PbI2(s)

Q5: a) Write a balanced equation for the reaction between potassium carbonate and magnesium nitrate. (Use the rules on the next page to determine the solubility of salts)
Mg(NO3)2(aq) + K2CO3 (aq) KNO3(aq) MgCO3(s) +2

b) Convert the equation in a) into an ionic equation. Remove the spectator ions. Mg 2+ (aq) + 2 NO3- (aq) + 2K+ + CO3 2-(aq) MgCO3(s) + 2K+ (aq) + 2 NO3- (aq) Mg 2+ (aq) + CO3 2-(aq) MgCO3(s)

Simple Rules for the Solubility of Salts in Water

1 Most nitrate (NO3-) salts are soluble. 2 Most salts containing the alkali metal ions (Li+,

Na+, K+, Cs+, Rb+) and the ammonium ion (NH4+) are soluble. 3 Most chloride, bromide and iodide salts are soluble. Notable exceptions are salts containing the ions, Ag+, Pb2+, and Hg22+

4- Most sulphate (SO42-) salts are soluble. Notable exceptions are BaSO4, PbSO4, SrSO4, HgSO4, and CaSO4 are slightly soluble (i.e. they can be considered as being insoluble at room temperature) 5- Most hydroxide (OH-) salts are only slightly soluble. The important soluble hydroxides are NaOH and KOH.  Ba(OH)2 and Ca(OH)2 are marginally soluble. (i.e. they can be considered as being insoluble at room temperature)

6- Most sulphide (S2-), carbonate (CO32-) and phosphate (PO43-) are insoluble. Exceptions are alkali metals and NH4+ and sulphides of Ca, Sr and Mg.