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Chapter 41

Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

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Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology


Anatomy


The study, classification, and description of structures and organs of the body

Physiology


Explains the processes and functions of the various structures and how they interrelate with one another

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Anatomical Terminology
Terms that specifically locate a structure
          

Anteriorto face forward Cranialtoward the head Caudaltoward the tail Superiortoward the head or above Inferiorlower, below another Medialtoward the midline Lateraltoward the side Proximalnearest the trunk Distalfarthest from the trunk Superficialnearer the body surface Deepfarther away from the body surface
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Anatomical Terminology
Body planes


Sagittal
Divides the body into right and left halves

Coronal
Divides the body into front and back halves

Transverse
Divides the body into caudal and cranial portions

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Figure 41-2

(From Thibodeau, G.A., Patton, K.T. [2008]. Structure and function of the body. [13th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)

Directions and planes of the body.


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Anatomical Terminology
Body cavities


Ventral cavity
Thoracic cavity

Heart and lungs

Abdominopelvic cavity Abdominal


o

Stomach, kidneys, liver, gallbladder, spleen, pancreas, and a large portion of the intestines Lower portion of the intestines, urinary bladder, and internal structures of the reproductive system

Pelvic
o

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Anatomical Terminology
Body cavities (continued)


Dorsal cavity
Cranial cavity

Brain Spinal cord

Spinal cavity

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Figure 41-3

(From Thibodeau, G.A., Patton, K.T. [2008]. Structure and function of the body. [13th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)

Location and subdivisions of the dorsal and ventral body cavities as viewed from the front (anterior) and from the side (lateral).
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Abdominal Regions
Nine abdominal regions
        

Right hypochondriac region Epigastric region Left hypochondriac region Right lumbar region Umbilical region Left lumbar region Right iliac (inguinal) region Hypogastric region Left iliac (inguinal) region

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Figure 41-4

(From Thibodeau, G.A., Patton, K.T. [2008]. Structure and function of the body. [13th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)

The nine regions of the abdominopelvic cavity.


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Abdominopelvic Quadrants
Physicians and other health professionals
frequently divide the abdomen into four quadrants to describe the site of pain or locate internal pathology
   

Right upper quadrant Left upper quadrant Right lower quadrant Left lower quadrant

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Figure 41-5

(From Thibodeau, G.A., Patton, K.T. [2008]. Structure and function of the body. [13th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)

The abdomen divided into right and left upper quadrants and right and left lower quadrants.
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Structural Levels of Organization


Organization is one of the most important
characteristics of body structure.


Chemical level
Atoms Molecules

    

Cellular level Tissue level Organs System level Organism (human being)

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Structural Levels of Organization


Cell


Structural parts
Plasma membrane

Keeps cell whole and intact Selectively permeable Sticky, fluid-like substance between the plasma membrane and the nucleus Contains organelles o Tiny functioning structures o Nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, centrioles

Cytoplasm

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Figure 41-7

(From Herlihy, B., Maebius, N.K. [2007]. The human body in health and illness. [3rd ed.]. Philadelphia: Saunders.)

A typical cell.
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Structural Levels of Organization


Nucleus
    

Largest organelle Responsible for cell reproduction and control of other organelles Surrounded by nuclear membrane Contains nucleoplasm Nucleolus
Critical in formation of protein

Chromatin granules
Composed of protein and DNA

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Structural Levels of Organization


Endoplasmic reticulum
Smooth and rough  Functions as a miniature circulation system


Golgi apparatus


Packaging plant
Packages certain carbohydrate and protein compounds into globules, then releases them outside of the cell

Centrioles


Aid in the formation of the spindle during mitosis


Necessary for cell reproduction

Paired, rod-shaped organelles


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Structural Levels of Organization


Protein synthesis


DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)


Located in the nucleus Chemical blueprint

Encodes the message for protein synthesis and sends it to RNA

RNA (ribonucleic acid)


Located in the cytoplasm Chemical messenger

Transports DNA message to ribosomes where the protein is produced

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Structural Levels of Organization


Cell division


Mitosis
Reproduction of cells One cell divides to form two daughter cells Chromosomes

Located in the nucleus Carry genes responsible for the organisms traits Each body cell contains 46 chromosomes Each exists in pairs (one from the father and one from the mother)

Four phases of mitosis


Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

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Structural Levels of Organization


Movement of materials across cell membranes


Active transport
Movement of material across the membrane of a cell by means of a chemical activity that allows the cell to admit larger molecules than would otherwise be able to enter Requires energy

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Structural Levels of Organization


Types of active transport
PhagocytosisMovement of cells or other large particles into the cell by trapping them in a section of plasma membrane  PinocytosisMovement of fluid and dissolved molecules into a cell by trapping them in a section of plasma membrane  Pump (calcium or sodium-potassium)Movement of solute particles from an area of low concentration to an area of higher concentration by means of a carrier molecule


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Structural Levels of Organization


Passive transport
Movement of small molecules across the membrane of a cell by diffusion  No energy is required  Types


DiffusionSolid particles in a fluid move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration OsmosisThe passage of water across a selectively permeable membrane, with water molecules going from the less concentrated solution to the more concentrated solution FiltrationThe movement of water and particles through a membrane by force
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Figure 41-11

. (From Thibodeau, G.A., Patton, K.T. [2007]. natomy and physiology. [6th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)

Osmosis.
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Structural Levels of Organization


Tissues


Epithelial tissue
Covers outside of the body and some internal structures Functions

Protection Absorption Secretion

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Structural Levels of Organization


Types of epithelial tissue


Simple squamous
Alveoli of lungs and lining of vessels

Simple columnar
Lining of stomach, intestines, and respiratory tract

Stratified squamous
Lining of mouth and esophagus; surface of skin

Stratified transitional
Urinary bladder

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Structural Levels of Organization


Connective tissue


Connects
Joins tissues or structures to the body

Types
Areolar Adipose Dense fibrous Bone Cartilage Blood

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Structural Levels of Organization


Muscle tissue
Contracts in response to a message from the brain or spinal cord  Types


Skeletal

Voluntary; attached to bones Involuntary; form the heart Involuntary Lining of internal organs (blood vessels, stomach, intestines, uterus)
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Cardiac

Smooth (visceral)

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Structural Levels of Organization


Nervous tissue
Provides rapid communication between body structures and control of body functions  Neurons


Transmit impulses or messages




Glial cells
Support and nourish the neurons

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Structural Levels of Organization


Membranes


Epithelial membranes
Mucous membranes

Line body surfaces that open to the outside Nose, mouth, urinary tract, reproductive tract, etc. Secrete mucus Thick, slippery material Keeps membranes soft and moist Protects against bacterial invasion Lubricant in GI tract

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Structural Levels of Organization


Serous membranes


Line body surfaces that do not open to the outside


Lungs, intestines, heart

Secrete serous fluid


Thin, watery fluid

Two layers
Parietal membrane (lines the wall of the cavity) Visceral membrane (covers the surface of the organ)

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Structural Levels of Organization


Connective tissue membranes (synovial
membranes)
Line the joint spaces between bones and prevent friction  Secrete synovial fluid Thick, colorless lubricating fluid


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Structural Levels of Organization


Organs/systems


Integumentary
Skin Hair Nails Sense receptors Sweat glands Oil glands

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Structural Levels of Organization


Skeletal system
Bones  Joints


Muscular system


Muscles

Nervous system
Brain  Spinal cord  Nerves


Circulatory system


Heart and blood vessels


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Structural Levels of Organization


Endocrine system
         

Pituitary glands Pineal gland Hypothalamus Thyroid gland Parathyroids Thymus Adrenals Pancreas Ovaries (female) Testes (male)
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Structural Levels of Organization


Lymphatic system
Lymph nodes and vessels  Thymus  Spleen  Tonsils


Respiratory system
     

Nose Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi Lungs


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Structural Levels of Organization


Digestive system (primary organs)
       

Mouth Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Rectum Anal canal

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Structural Levels of Organization


Digestive system (accessory organs)
      

Teeth Salivary glands Tongue Liver Gallbladder Pancreas Appendix

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Structural Levels of Organization


Urinary system
Kidneys  Ureters  Urinary bladder  Urethra


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Structural Levels of Organization


Reproductive system (male)


Gonads
Testes

Genital ducts
Vas deferens Urethra

Accessory glands
Prostate

Supporting structures  Genitalia




Penis and scrotum

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Structural Levels of Organization


Reproductive system (female)


Gonads
Ovaries

Accessory organs
Uterus Fallopian tubes Vagina

Supporting structures  Genitalia




Vulva


Mammary glands (breasts)


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