VPAR 221, ENTOMOLOGY

Entomology: is the branch of biological science which deals with the insects and their allied. Branches of Entomology: 1. Veterinary entomology 2. Medical entomology 3. Agricultural entomology 4. Applied entomology 5. Industrial entomology 6. Forensic entomology

Arthropods:
Greek- Arthros/Arthron means a joint Podos/Pous means foot The arthropods are the invertebrates with jointed appendages and chitinous exoskeleton. General Characteristics of Arthropods: They have a so called exoskeleton. They do not have bones, but the hard outer covering supports the muscles. The appendages are jointed. The body is formed of a number of segments. bilaterally symmetrical (appendages are always paired).

General structure and function of Arthropod

Integument the body is covered by chitin; this forms the typical body segment (sclerite) which are divided into tergum (dorsal), sternum (ventral), and pleuron (lateral) Circulation the hemocoele is a space full of blood which bathes all body organs; the system is composed of an enlarged dorsal blood vessel (heart), pericardium (encloses the heart), paired ostia (opening in the pericardial walls), and short arteries

Respiration - the arthropod may possess any or 2 of the followings:

Gills (bronchiae) - found in larva, nymph, and adult aquatic species of various kinds Trachea - fine elastic tubes in the chitinous lining which branches and ramifies among the internal organs Lung book - found in spiders Gill book - found in crabs Spiracle - smaller circular opening in the exoskeleton

Digestion
Foregut or stomodeum - buccal cavity, pharynx, proventriculus, gizzard; involved in ingestion, passage, and disintegration of food particles Midgut or mesenteron - storage of food and enzyme secretion Hindgut or proctodeum - absorption of food and expulsion of fecal materials

Excretion
Paired nephridia crustaceans Malpighian tubules insects Coxal glands Supraesophageal center (brain) Ganlionated ventral nerve cord Male - paired testes, vas deferens, paired seminal vesicle, penile organ Female - paired ovaries, oviduct, uterus, vagina, spermatheca

Nervous system

Reproduction

Stages in the Life Cycle of an Arthropod

egg - stage that undergoes a series of segmentation larva - developing form after it has emerged from the egg and before it is transformed into a pupa; it is the feeding stage of the parasite pupa - the quiescent stage of metamorphosis that emerge from the larval stage nymph - form that leaves the egg with similarity in morophology with that of the adult adult - the reproductive stage of the parasite imago - the young adult

Types of larva Polypod - larva with a marked head, a 3segmented thorax with legs, a 10-segmented abdomen which bears 5 pairs of fleshy hooked legs calles prolegs, e.g. caterpillars, buttterfly. oligopod - larva with a well-marked head, 3 pairs of thoracic legs, but no abdominal legs e.g. beetles apodous - larva with no legs on the thorax and abdomen and head is reduced, e.g. maggots.

Types of Pupa
Free or exarate - the wings and legs are free from the body and can be seen externally e.g. beetles Obtectate - pupa with legs and wings bound to the body by molting fluid but still visible externally e.g. mosquitoes Coarctate - last larval skin retained; this hardened skin (puparium) encloses the pupa, hence it cannot be seen externally, e.g. housefly.

Types of Female
Oviparous - lay undeveloped eggs, e.g. housefly, stable fly Ovoviviparous - lays larvated egg. Ovoviviparous species lay eggs from which the larvae emerge right away or in a short time, e.g. few diptera. Viviparous / larviparous - lays fully-developed larva e.g. flesh flies, tsetse flies, Oestrus ovis Pupiparous - lays larva that immediately turns into pupa e.g. pigeon louse fly Parthenogenetic - reproduce without males / fertilization e.g. silkworm silkworm

Types of Development/Metamorphosis
Metamorphosis: After hatching from the egg, an insect grows by a series of molts. After shedding the old skin they expand into a new larger one. This molting continues until the adult stage is reached. At each molt, some externally visible changes occur. This type of growing is called metamorphosis. Ametamorphosis: Except for the size, all larval stages closely resemble the adults (which are wingless). The apterygota like silver fish have no metamorphosis. Direct / incomplete metamorphosis / hemimetabolous life cycle - 1 or 2 of the stages are missing; hatched insect (nymph) is a miniature of the adult. The nymphs usually have the same feeding habits as the adults, e.g. The exopterygota like lice, bedbugs Indirect / Complete metamorphosis / holometabolous life cycle - characterized by having the 4 stages: egg, larva, pupa, adult; the hatched insect differs morphologically from parent. e.g. the endopterygota like mosquitoes.

The Terms "lnstar" and "Stage"

The cuticle of an insect allows for only limited growth; for further growth, the insect must split and shed its cuticle, and this process is called molting or ecdysis. Before the old cuticle is shed, a new cuticle is already forming, and will allow for another limited increase in body size. This process usually continues until the insect becomes an adult, although in a few insects such as the silverfish (Thysanura), molting continues even after the adult stage is reached. An instar is the form in which an insect appears after each molt. The period between any 2 molts is called a stadium (plural, stadia).

Importance of arthropods
A) Arthropods as direct agent of disease or discomfort: Entomophobia Annoyance and blood loss Accidental injury to sense organ, e.g. Otobius megnini may invade the ear of man and animal. Envenomizarion, e.g. tick paralysis Dermatosis, e.g. like mosquitoes Myasis and related infestations, e.g. invasion of tissue of living animal by dipteran larvae. Allergy and related conditions, e.g. cast skin of many insects may cause asthma.

B) Arthropods as vectors of pathogens/ Transmission of Disease by Arthropods:

1. Mechanical / Non-cyclical transmission - when no change in form or development occur in the arthropod body, e.g. T. evansi; amoeba; helminth ova. 2. Biological transmission / Cyclical transmission - there is change in form or development of the parasite or organism in the body of the arthropod. Three types:

>Types of Biological Transmission:

Cyclopropagative transmission - the organism undergoes cyclical changes or change in form as well as in number (multiplication) in the body of the arthropod, e.g. Plasmodia in mosquito Cyclodevelopmental transmission - the organism undergoes cyclic development changing in form and size but no change in number, no multiplication in the body of the arthropod, e.g. Dirofilaria immitis in the mosquito Propagative transmission - the organism undergoes multiplication in the arthropod but there is no cyclical development or change in form and size, e.g. Pasteurella/Yersinia pestis in the gut of the rat flea (Bubonic plague).

3. Transovarian transmission or hereditary transmission - transmission of infection is through the next generation of ticks. After the mature female tick ingests the parasite, the parasite invades the developing tick egg and when the young tick emerges, it carries with it the infective organism, then the mother dies after laying eggs e.g. Babesia in tick. 4. Transtadial - organism is transmitted by the next developmental stage of ticks. 5. Phoresy - transport of small parasite (lice and mites) by bigger parasite (flies, mosquitoes). Eggs of some flies are attached to abdomen of another fly, becomes hatched then deposited or transferred in another host, e.g. when Tabanus feeds, it could have lice attached to its leg and transfer it to another host.

ARTHROPOD DISTRIBUTIONS
The general distribution of animals is strongly determined by geography and climate. In reflecting geographical divisions, the world is often divided into six zoogeographical regions, each region containing its characteristic animal and plant species (Fig next). Each region is usually isolated by physical boundaries such as deserts, mountains and oceans. Each region contains many species of animal and plant which are endemic (native to the region) or which are indigenous (have dispersed or migrated there naturally). Superimposed on these regions, differences in temperature and rainfall caused by differences in latitude, altitude and continentally create further divisions into climatic biomes: tropical, temperate and polar.

 The distribution of many arthropod may be strongly limited to specific biomes, either climate or indirectly through the effects of climate on the resources that the arthropod requires. Nevertheless, when arthropod pests of veterinary importance, it is notable that been able to spread worldwide, carried with livestock and many cases they are also largely protected from the effects by the warm microclimate of their host's body and the other buildings that humans construct. Hence, the zoogeographic regions and climatic biomes frequently prove to be an important factor in the distribution of ectoparsitic arthropods.

Diapause
Diapause is the delay in development in response to regularly and recurring periods of adverse environmental conditions. It is considered to be a physiological state of dormancy with very specific initiating and inhibiting conditions. Diapause is a mechanism used as a means to survive predictable, unfavourable environmental conditions, such as temperature extremes, drought or reduced food availability. Diapause is most often observed in arthropods, especially in insects. It may take the form of a temporary cessation of development, or temporary cessation of activity, or both.

 Diapause is not only induced in an organism by specific stimuli or conditions, but once it is initiated, only certain other stimuli are capable of bringing the organism out of diapause. In insects, diapause most often occurs in the egg or pupal stages, although it may occur in other stages of development. Diapause may be triggered by a lengthening (vernal) photoperiod or by a shortening (autumnal) photoperiod, or may be imposed by such internal factors as heredity, enzymes, or hormones.