Language Description 3 PPISMP TESL Jun Intake 2009 IPG Tawau Campus

Cohesion

can be defined as the links that hold a text together and give it meaning. When sentences, ideas, and details fit together clearly, readers can follow along easily, and the writing is coherent. The ideas tie together smoothly and clearly. To establish the links that readers need, you can use the methods listed here. Note that good writers use a combination of these methods.

 Cohesion

is complementary to coherence and refers to the linking relationships that are explicitly expressed in the surface structure of the text. Cohesion is achieved through a variety of lexical and grammatical relationships between items within sentences in the text.

There are 5 main types of cohesive ties: Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction Lexical

Anaphoric Cataphoric Exophoric

(everywhere, everything)

 occurs

when the writer refers back to someone or something that has been previously identified, to avoid repetition. Some examples: replacing "the taxi driver" with the pronoun "he" or "two girls" with "they". Another example can be found in formulas such as "as stated previously" or "the aforementioned".

 reference

backwards in the text. A personal pronoun, for example, often has anaphoric reference, i.e. you have to look at the preceding context to see what it refers to. referring back to or substituting for a preceding word or group of words

 In

the example, she/he/it has anaphoric reference: Ann was studying for her exams. She found it difficult to concentrate. The teacher asks the students to submit the assignment by tomorrow. He does not want late submission. The apple on the table was rotten. It had been there for days.

 The

President had set for himself the task, which ... The bill, which Daniel said he drafted personally, ... Monte Brooks, 67, theatrical producer and band leader, collapsed and died Thursday in a Lloyd Center restaurant. He lived at 6124 N. Willamette Blvd.

In the same year the Swiss scholar, J. J. Bachofen, published Das Mutterrecht, (Mother Right), a book showing that matriliny, the tracing of descent through women, and matriarchy, the dominance of women in society, as well as the cult of female goddesses, preceded the patriarchy and the patriliny we find in Biblical and Classical societies. This idea was accepted with varying degrees of caution by many nineteenth-century anthropologists and ultimately was wholly endorsed by Engels, who, in the preface to the fourth edition of The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State , gave warm praise to Bachofen.

 Should

the qualified defence of diminished responsibility be retained? In answering this question, one has to contend with two muddles in English law, a general muddle about mental disorder and criminal responsibility, and a specific muddle about murder and manslaughter.

 Time

for Christians began with the Creation and would end with Christ's Second Coming. World history was bounded by these two events. The spread of this belief marks the divide between the mental outlook of Classical antiquity and that of the Middle Ages.

 This

will not be the case if, for example, Uruguay could have supplied the parties with a commodity that, though useful to both, was in short supply in one country but not in the other. Should we then say that Uruguay is not neutral unless it starts providing the country suffering from the shortage in that commodity? If by not helping it Uruguay is hindering it, then this conclusion is forced on us.

 In

the same article, Crutzen stresses that chemists used to believe biomass fires produced some 2.5 billion tons of carbon annually, but have now revised this estimate upwards to 3 billion tons.

 We

have already seen that subjects given no pre-training do less well in the test phase than those given initial discrimination training and we have acknowledged that unambiguous interpretation of this difference is impossible.

 the

opposite of anaphora: a reference forward as opposed to backward in the discourse. Something is introduced in the abstract before it is identified. cataphoric reference (referanse til noe lenger framme i teksten): reference forwards. Sometimes a pronoun such as he, she, it finds its reference in the following context.

 For

example:

"Here he comes, our award-winning host... it's John Doe! When I first met him, John Smith was wearing a very ugly T-shirt. He was wearing a shabby raincoat and pulled down fedora. The detective showed me his badge and proceeded to question me

1. It rained day and night for two weeks. The basement flooded and everything was under water. It spoilt all our calculations. 2. The trip would hardly have been noteworthy, except for the man who made it. In mid-July a powerful American financier flew to Mexico City for a series of talks with high ranking government officials.

3. The government are to blame for unemployment. The voters are no longer prepared to listen to platitudes and want action. 4. She claims Leo Tolstoy as a distant cousin. Her grandfather was Alexei Tolstoy - the famous 'Red Count' who sided with Lenin's revolutionaries. Now, Tatyana Tolstaya has put pen to paper, in her case to demonstrate that someone from her family can write.

 This

is when a previously stated word is subsequently left out as the context makes it clear what is being referred to. E.g. "Would you like to know a joke? I know hundreds ( of jokes ).".

happens when, after a more specific mention, words are omitted when the phrase needs to be repeated. A simple conversational example: (A) Where are you going? (B) To town. The full form of B's reply would be: "I am going to town". A simple written example: The younger child was very outgoing, the older much more reserved. The omitted words from the second clause are "child" and "was".

 Most

students start each term with an award cheque. But by the time accommodation and food are paid for, books are bought, trips taken home and a bit of social life lived, it usually looks pretty emaciated. If you require further information on the applicant, I would be pleased to do so.

 Logical

connectors is another type of cohesive devices.

- moreover | furthermore | and | also | too | as well | equally ANTHISESIS - however | nevertheless | on the other hand | but | whereas COMPARISON - compared with | in comparison with | similarly | in the same way REASON / CAUSE - as | since | because | due to | owing to | because of | out of
ADDITION

/ SUMMARY - as a result | consequently | so | therefore | then | in conclusion | in all | in brief | in short | in summary PURPOSE - so that | in order that | in order to | to | for | for the sake of EXAMPLE - for example | for instance | namely | that is to say | what I mean is ORDER OF EVENTS - first(ly) | second(ly) | finally | first | next | then | after that | lastly
RESULT

SEQUENCE - at first | after a while | in the end | finally RE-EXPRESSION - in other words | that is to say | alternatively | rather DEDUCTION - this means that | in that case it follows that | then | otherwise SIDETRACKING - incidentally | by the way | to turn to | come to mention it
TIME