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Optical Parts
Mirror Substage -Iris Diaphragm -Condenser Objectives -LPO -HPO -OIO Eyepiece/ Ocular Mirror
Start by bringing the objectives as close as possible to the slide. Look into the eyepiece and slowly move the object away from the slide until the image comes into focus To further magnify the object rotate the nosepiece so that the next objective is in position. To maximize the capacity of the microscope, use OIO.
Ocular
0.01 mm
Stage
Calculations
y Calibration
Magnification of Illustration size of the drawing actual size of the object 30 mm or 3 cm 0.035 mm = 857.14 x Linear Magnification Magnification of eyepiece X Magnification of objectives
Object Ocular size of the object x calibration constant 14 osp x 0.0025 mm = 0.035 mm
Compound vs Stereoscope
Criteria Magnification Compound 100-1000x Stereoscope 40x
Position of Object
Inverted
Upright
Opposite
Parallel
2-D
3-D
magnifying
magnifying power
Jassy Mary S. Lazarte Department of Biology College of Arts & Sciences UP Manila
Cheek Cell
y Squamous y Cells are stacked in
Fat Cell
y Globular y Lipids are seen as
reddish sphere y Nucleus is located near plasma membrane since fat droplets push the nucleus
RBC
y Small in size y Biconcave disk y Lacks organelles and y Large
WBC
y Spherical y Has nucleus y Possess lysosomes and
Frog RBC
y Larger in size y Oval in shape y Possess nucleus and
Human RBC
y Smaller in size y Biconcave disk in shape y Lacks organelles and
Columnar Cells
y Rectangular in shape y With nucleus located in
the lower part of the cell y Usually arranged in single layers y Possess microvilli which serves to increase surface area for absorption
Liver Cells
y Cuboidal in shape y Tightly packed y With nucleus located at
Sperm Cells
y With head, midpiece and
the center
tail y Has hairlike structure for movement y Acrosome and flagellum are its primary modification which functions for movement and penetration of the outer layer surrounding the egg
Amoeba sp.
y No particular direction y A change in position is
Paramecium sp
y Cilia is seen covering the y
observed once they meet an obstruction y Exhibits amoeboid movement y These movement is also seen in WBC
y y y
body Cilia is essential for locomotion, filtration and protection Exhibits ciliary movement This movement is evident in respiratory passages Has 2 nuclei: macronucleus and micronucleus
Sources Blood vessel brain, spinal cord, nerves Lungs, kidneys, lining of the heart Intestine Cerebral cortex Walls of hallow organ Kidneys Fats Amoeba
Functions Transport of substances Transmission of electric signals Protection and regulation Absorption transmission Movement Secretion, absorption Storage, insulation Amoeboid movement
Prokaryotic Cell Cell wall Nuclear membrane Chromosomes Mitochondria Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi complex Plastids Ribosomes Vacuoles Centrioles Lysosomes Present Absent Single, circular Absent Absent absent Absent but present in some Present Present Absent Absent
Eukaryotic Cell Absent in animals but present in plants Present Multiple Present Present Present Absent in animals but present in plants Present Present Present in animals but absent in plants Present
What is Interphase?
y Period of DNA replication and
synthesis of proteins and nucleic acid components essential to growth y Gap 1 (G1)- important preparatory stage for the replication of DNA. Mark by the synthesis of tRNA, mRNA and several enzymes y Synthesis (S)- replication of DNA y Gap 2 (G2)- synthesis of spindle and aster proteins essential for chromosome separation
What is Mitosis?
y Nuclear division in which there is an equal
qualitative and quantitative division of the chromosomal material between the 2 resulting nuclei. y 2 processes involved: y Karyokinesis y Cytokinesis
Phases of Mitosis
y Prophase- centrosomes and
centromeres replicate and the 2 centrosomes migrate to opposite sides of the nucleus - microtubules appear between the two centrosomes to form a foot ball shaped spindle and asters - nuclear chromatin condenses to form chromosomes and nuclear envelop dissappears
y Metaphase- condensed
chromatins move to the middle of the nuclear region to form the metaphase plate
astral centrosome kinetochore Chromatin
centromere the holds the two chromatids leading to formation of 2 independent chromosome each with its own centromere - chromosomes move toward their respective poles pulled by kinetochore fibers
y Telophase- characterized
by the disappearance of spindle fibers, chromosomes revert to the diffuse chromatin network and nuclear membrane appears around the 2 daughter nuclei
Criteria
Centrioles Cytokinesis Astral fibers Location of division Source of spindle fibers
Animal
Present Cleavage furrow Present Periphery Centriole
Plant
Absent Cell plate Absent Center Microtubule
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Telophase Anaphase
Jassy Mary S. Lazarte Department of Biology College of Arts and Sciences UP Manila
Epithelial Tissues
y Closely packed polyhedral cells y Contain very little extracellular substance y Line all external and internal surfaces of the body y Functions:
y Covering and lining of surfaces y Absorption y Sensation y Secretion y contractility
squamous
Shape
Epithelial Tissues Number
stratified
Pseudostratified columnar
Simple Columnar epithelium -single layer of elongated cells -in the linings of digestive tract, gall bladder, and excretory ducts of some glands - functions for absorption and enzyme secretion
Stratified Squamous
-Consist of 2 or more layers of squamous cells -unkeratinized variety are usually found in the linings of the esophagus, mouth and vagina while the keratinized variety lines the surface of the skin -function to protect underlying tissues in areas subject to abrasion -frog skin
Connective Tissue
y Composed of cells, fibers and ground
substances y Major constituent is the extracellular matrix y Functions: y Provide and maintain form in the body y Provide matrix that connects and binds the cells and organs y Gives support to the body
Areolar/Loose
Modified Loose
Specialized
Loose/Areolar
y Supports structures that are normally under
pressure and low friction y Found in: y papillary layer of dermis y serosal linings of peritoneal and pleural cavities, glands and the wet membranes that line the hollow organs
Dense Regular
y Collagen fibers are
arranged in a definite pattern y located at the dermis of the skin, submucosa of the digestive tract and fibrous capsules of organs and joints y provide structural strength y Ex. tendon
Dense Irregular
y Collagen fibers are in
bundles without a definite orientation y Provide resistance to stress from all directions y Ex. Frogs dermis
Modified Loose
y Adipose
y Largest repository of energy y Fills spaces between other
tissues and helps to keep some organs in place y Reticular y Compose of reticular fibers y Provides architectural framework that creates a special microenvironment for hematopoietic and lymphoid organs
Specialized
y Bone y Blood
y Red Blood Cells y White Blood Cells
Granulocyte (Neutrophil, Acidophil, Basophil) y Agranulocyte (lymphocyte, monocyte) y Cartilage y Hyaline y Fibrocartilage y Elastic
y
Cartilage
y Contains extracellular matrix enrich with GAGs and
proteoglycans that interact with collagen and elastic fibers y Bears mechanical stress without distortion y Support soft tissues y Chondrocytes
y secrete the fibers and ground substance that make up the
Hyaline Cartilage
y Most common in embryonic skeleton y Cells are located in lacunae surrounded by
intercellular material containing fine collagenous fibers y Appear bluish white to translucent under the microscope y Essential for support and reinforcement y Found in:
y Walls of respiratory passages(nose, larynx, trachea &
bronchi) y Ventral ends of ribs y Articular surfaces of the movable joints y Longitudinal growth of bones
Fibrocartilage
y Tissues that are intermediate between dense and
hyaline cartilage y Contains many large collagenous fibers in the intercellular material y usually absorbs compression shock y Found in:
y Intervertebral disks y Pubic symphisis y Disk of knee joints
Elastic Cartilage
y Contains fine collagenous fibers and many elastic
fibers in its intercellular material y serve to maintain a structure s shape while allowing great flexibility y Found in: y Auricle of the ear y Walls of external auditory canals y Auditory (Eustachian) tubes y Epiglottis y Cuneiform cartilage of the larynx
Bone
y Highly vascularized, metabolically active y Reservoir of Calcium and other essential ions y Provides structural framework for the body y Parts to look for:
y matrix y Canaliculi-thin cylindrical spaces that perforate the
matrix y Haversian canal- houses blood vessels and nerves y Lamellae- concentric layers of the matrix y Lacunae- allow the passage of interstitial fluid between the central canal and the lacunae housing osteocytes
Bone
Spongy Bone
y network of irregularly-shaped sheets and spikes of
bone (trabeculae) y spaces between the trabeculae contain red or yellow marrow, depending on a person's age and on which bone it is y there are no blood vessels within the matrix of spongy bone, but blood vessels are nearby in the marrow spaces y exchange of nutrients, gases, etc. occurs between capillaries in the marrow and the interstitial fluid of the marrow
Blood
y Consists of the cells and fluid that flow in a
unidirectional movement within a circulatory system y Transports oxygen and nutrients around the body y Chief defense mechanism against infection y Made up of two parts: y Formed elements (blood cells) y Erythrocytes y Platelets y leukocytes y Plasma
Blood
Leukocyte
Erythrocyte
Platelets
Neutrophil
Granulocyte
Acidophil
Basophil
y phocyte
Agranulocyte Monocyte
Blood
Granulocytes Neutrophil Agranulocytes Eosinophil
Lymphocyte
Basophil
Monocyte
Muscular Tissue
y Composed of differentiated cells containing
contractile proteins y Such proteins generate the forces necessary for cellular contraction y Parts to look for: y Nucleus y Sarcolemma-cell membrane y Sarcoplasm-the cytoplasm of the muscle y Sarcoplasmic reticulum-smooth endoplasmic reticulum y fibers
Muscle Tissue
t elet l r i c
Skeletal Muscle
y Consist of bundles of a very long, cylindrical
cells y Multinucleated, seen in the periphery y Exhibit cross striations y Quick contraction y Usually under voluntary control y located in skeletal muscles attached to bone y useful for voluntary movement and locomotion
Smooth Muscle
y Consists of collection of fusiform/spindle-
shaped cells y With single, central nucleus y No cross striations y Slow contraction y Not subject to voluntary movement y Found in:
y found in walls of hollow organs and they move substances
Cardiac Muscle
y Composed of elongated, branched individual
cells that lie parallel to each other y With 1 or 2 nuclei y Exhibit cross striation y Intercalated disks (exclusive) y Vigorous and rhythmic contraction y Involuntary movement
Nervous Tissue
y Nerve cell consists of three parts:
y Dendrites-multiple elongated processes
specialized in RECEIVING stimuli from the environment, sensory epithelial cells or other neurons y Cell body/perikaryon- TROPHIC CENTER for the whole nerve cell, also receptive to stimuli y Axon- a single process specialized in GENERATING or conducting nerve impulses to other cells
fiber y Medullary sheath- thick sheath covering the fiber between the neurilemma and the axis cylinder y Nodes of Ranvier-constrictions in the medullary sheath
y Cross section:
y Epineurium-external fibrous coat of dense
connective tissue, also fills the space between the bundles(fascicule) of nerve fibers y Perineurium- surrounds each bundle, protects the nerve fiber from aggression y Endoneurium-the membrane covering each nerve fiber
Nervous Tissue
n = node of Ranvier a = axon Most of the purple nuclei are Schwann cell nuclei.