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Diabetes Mellitus :
a group of diseases characterized by high levels of blood glucose resulting from defects in insulin production, insulin action, or both
j 20.8 million in US ( 7% of population) j estimated 14.6 million diagnosed (only 2/3) j Consists of 3 types:
Diabetes Mellitus
j Type 1 Diabetes
- cells that produce insulin are destroyed - results in insulin dependence - commonly detected before 30
j Type 2 Diabetes
- blood glucose levels rise due to 1) Lack of insulin production 2) Insufficient insulin action (resistant cells) - commonly detected after 40 - effects > 90% - eventually leads to -cell failure
(resulting in insulin dependence)
Gestational Diabetes
3-5% of pregnant women in the US develop gestational diabetes
Testing :
Fasting Plasma Glucose Test (FPG) - (cheap, fast) *fasting B.G.L. 100-125 mg/dl signals pre-diabetes *>126 mg/dl signals diabetes Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT) *tested for 2 hrs after glucoserich drink *140-199 mg/dl signals prediabetes *>200 mg/dl signals diabetes
80 to 90 mg per 100 ml, is the normal fasting blood glucose concentration in humans and most mammals which is associated with very low levels of insulin secretion.
Diabetes - Insulin
j Discovered in 1921 by Banting
and Best j Consist of A & B chains linked by 2 disulfide bonds (plus additional disulfide in A) jA = 21amino acids B = 30 amino acids
Diabetes Insulin
(synthesis, storage, secretion)
j Produced within the pancreas by
cells islets of Langerhans j insulin mRNA is translated as a single chain precursor called preproinsulin j removal of signal peptide during insertion into the endoplasmic reticulum generates proinsulin j Within the endoplasmic reticulum, proinsulin is exposed to several specific endopeptidases which excise the C peptide, thereby generating the mature form of insulin This light micrograph of a section
j Stored as
Zn
granules
of the human pancreas shows one of the islets of Langerhans, center, a group of modified glandular cells. These cells secrete insulin, a hormone that helps the body metabolize sugars, fats, and starches. The blue and white lines in the islets of Langerhans are blood vessels that carry the insulin to the rest of the body.
Diabetes Insulin
(Biochemical Role) -Tyrosine Kinase receptors are the locks in which the insulin key fits - Involved in signal transduction
(insulin hormone being 1st messenger)
In the case of type 1 diabetes, insulin levels are grossly deficient. Thus type 1 diabetes is invariably treated with insulin Type 2 diabetes is frequently associated with obesity. Serum insulin levels are normal or elevated, so this is a disease of insulin resistance. A number of treatment options may be employed.
The bulk of the pancreas is an exocrine gland secreting pancreatic fluid into the duodenum after a meal. Inside the pancreas are millions of clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans. The islets are endocrine tissue containing four types of cells. In order of abundance, they are: beta cells, which secrete insulin and amylin; alpha cells, which secrete glucagon; delta cells, which secrete somatostatin gamma cells, which secrete a polypeptide.
Pancreatic Hormones
j Insulin j Amylin j Glucagon j Somatostatin j Pancreatic Polypeptide
A chain
Insulin is a small protein consisting of an A chain of 21 amino acids linked by two disulfide (SS) bridges to a B chain of 30 amino acids.
Beta cells have channels in their plasma membrane that serve as glucose detectors. Beta cells secrete insulin in response to a rising level of circulating glucose.
B chain
protein synthesis
glucose uptake
glycogen synthesis
enzyme. In each case, insulin triggers these effects by binding to the insulin receptor.
fat synthesis
enzyme production
glycogen breaking
The insulin receptor (IR) is a transmembrane glycoprotein, composed of 2 and 2 domains. . Its intracellular tyrosine kinase domain is activated by binding of insulin, leading to a cascade of signaling events.
produces no insulin. j Type 2 diabetes patients that do not always produce enough insulin.
Treatment
subcutaneous injection
Stage 2 Convert pig insulin into human insulin by removing the one amino acid that distinguishes them and replacing it with the human version.
j Stage 3
Insert the human insulin gene into E. coli and culture the recombinant E.coli to produce insulin (trade name = Humulin). Yeast is also used to produce insulin (trade name = Novolin) (1987).
Recombinant DNA technology has also made it possible to manufacture slightly-modified forms of human insulin that work faster (Humalog and NovoLog) or slower (Lantus) than regular human insulin.
Types of insulin
Regular insulins:
j Human insulin: Humulin (from E.coli),
Novalin (from yeast) j NPH - neutral protamine Hagedorn (NPH), protamine mixed. j Lente insulin / Ultralente insullinzinc added
Types of insulin
Insulin Analogs:
j Fatty Acid Acylated insulins j Insulin Lispro (Humalog) (1996)
j Insulin Aspart (NovoLog) (2000) j Insulin Glargine (Lantus) (2002) j Insulin Detemir (Levemir) (Jun.,2005) j Insulin Glulisine (Apidra) (Jan., 2006)
B- chain Position
B28 Pro
B29 Lys
Aspartic Lys acid Lys Pro Pro Pro Glu Lys Lys
rapid-acting
Arg
long-acting
References
j Renuka C. P. et.al (2002) J. Biol. Chem. 277, 225904 j Zoltan V. AND William C. D. (2001) Pharm. Rev. 52, 1-9 j Lauge S. et. Al (2003) PNAS 100, 4435-9 j Mark R. B. (1997) J. of Clin. Endoc.& Met. 82, 3-7 j Gianni C. (1992) FEBS 307, 66-70 j Irl B. H., (2001) Clin. Diabetes 19, 146-7 j BRUCE W. B. and POUL S. (2001) Diabetes care 24,69-72 j http://www.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/diabetes.html
Sulfonylureas : stimulate
more insulin
j 1st generation
r tein
cells to produce
(1)Orinase
2-(p-aminobenzenesulfonamido)-5-isopropyl -thiadiazole (IPTD) was used in treatment of typhoid fever in 1940s hypoglycemia Currently > 12,000
j 2nd generation
(75)Glucotrol
tenc
ind t
(glipizide) (150)Glucotrol XL (ex. rel. glipizide) (150)Micronase, Diabeta (glyburide) (250)Glynase (micronized glyburide)
Rel.
j 3rd generation
(350)Amaryl
(glimepiride)
*Hydroxylation of the aromatic ring appears to be the most favored metabolic pathway *Hydroxylated derivatives have much lower hypoglycemic activity
Mechanism of Action
j Sulfonylureas interact with receptors on
pancreatic F-cells to block ATP-sensitive potassium channels j This, in turn, leads to opening of calcium channels j Which leads to the production of insulin
R R N N N R N R R R
- mechanism improves insulin sensitivity by increasing peripheral glucose uptake and utilization. - Zhou et al (2001) showed that metformin stimulates the hepatic enzyme AMP-activated protein kinase - Metformin was first described in the scientific literature in 1957 (Unger et al). - It was first marketed in France in 1979 but did not receive FDA approval for Type 2 diabetes until 1994. Metformin is a widely used monotherapy, and also used in combination with the sulfonylureas in treatment of type 2 diabetes
*only anti-diabetic drug that has been proven to reduce the complications of diabetes, as evidenced in a large study of overweight patients with diabetes (UKPDS 1998).
j Metformin
NH
&
O S
NH O O
H N H N N H N H H
&
O O NH
HCl
ido) et
l]
Cl -[[ -[ -( -c l r - - nis
j Pioglitazone
- Actos, Avandia
O S NH
- binds to and activates the gamma isoform of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR ). - PPAR is a member of the steroid hormone nuclear receptor superfamily, and is found in adipose tissue, cardiac and skeletal muscle, liver and placenta
- upon activation of this nuclear receptor by a ligand such as a TZD, PPAR ligand complex binds to a specific region of DNA and thereby regulates the transcription of many genes involved in glucose and fatty acid metabolism. - Marketed in USA in August of 1999
PPAR -
j AGIs
- Precose (acarbose),
- Glyset (miglitol)
H O H O N O H
H 1-(2-Hydroxy-ethyl)-2-hydroxymethylpiperidine-3,4,5-triol
j Meglitinides
O
- Prandin (repaglinide)
N NH
O O
OH
- Starlix (nateglinide)
NH O O OH 2-[( -Isopropyl-cyclohexanecar onyl)-amino]- -phenyl-propionic acid
%$
"
##
"
6 Classes :
j Sulfonylureas j Biguanides
stimulate cells improves insulins ability to move glucose
drugs BOTH j Thiazolidinediones cells more sensitive to insulin j Alpha-glycosidase inhibitors Block enzymes that help
digest starches
j Meglitinides
stimulate
In Conclusion :
j 2 major types of diabetes
(3 with Gestational) j Type 1 => insulin dependant (5-10%) j Type 2 => may treat with oral medication which may alter insulin production &/or sensitivity ; disease often succumbs to insulin dependence (>90%)
References:
http://www.webmd.com/content/article/59/66840 http://hms.harvard.edu/public/disease/diabetes/diabetes.html http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/2005/May20_2005/immunology.shtml http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/medicines_ez/index.htm http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/pancreas/insulin_struct.html http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/pancreas/insulin.html http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/moaction/surface.html http://www.cancure.org/insulin_potentiation_therapy.htm http://www.diabetes.org/about-diabetes.jsp http://www.diabetesnet.com/diabetes_treatments/sulfonylureas.php http://www.people.vcu.edu/~urdesai/sulf.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucohexal http://www.drkoop.com/druglibrary/93/glucovance-warnings_precautions.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actos http://www.answers.com/topic/peroxisome-proliferator-activated-receptor http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/176_08_150402/omo10828_fm.html http://www.univgraph.com/bayer/inserts/precose.pdf http://www.drugs.com/pdr/ACARBOSE.html http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/download/uspi_glyset.pdf http://www.rxlist.com/cgi/generic2/miglitol.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prandin http://redpoll.pharmacy.ualberta.ca/drugbank/cgi-bin/getCard.cgi?CARD=APRD00593.txt