Chapter 9 The Cell Cycle and Cellular Reproduction

9.1 The Cell Cycle The cell cycle consists of interphase and cell division  Interphase: most of the cell cycle
cell performs usual functions
consists of three stages G1 stage S stage G2 stage

The cell cycle

The cell cycle

The cell cycle

The cell cycle

The cell cycle

9.1 The Cell Cycle



Interphase, cont.

G1 stage: growth cell recovers from previous division maximum transcription and translation cell increases in size and doubles organelles in preparation for S stage.

9.1 The Cell Cycle



Interphase, cont.

S stage: synthesis (of DNA) replication of DNA each pair of chromatids joined by centromere

chromosome replication

chromatid centromere

9.1 The Cell Cycle



Interphase, cont.

G2 stage: growth cell prepares to divide centrioles copied and move to opposite poles chromatin begins condensing into chromosomes

9.1 The Cell Cycle



M (Mitotic) Stage: cell division stage

mitosis: nuclear division daughter chromosomes distributed to two daughter nuclei more in 9.2
cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm two daughter cells created

9.1 The Cell Cycle



Control of the Cell Cycle

cell cycle controlled by internal and external signals signal: molecule that stimulates or inhibits metabolic event growth factors: external signals received at plasma membrane


stimulate completion of cell cycle

Cell cycle regulation Evidence for cytoplasmic chemical signals in cell-cycle regulation

9.1 The Cell Cycle



Control of the Cell Cycle, cont.

at checkpoints, the cell has the option to stop or continue cyclins are internal signaling proteins regulating the cell cycle G2: Is DNA replicated? If not, wait. Is DNA intact? If not, repair. If repair is not possible, selfdestruct (apoptosis) M: Stop if chromosome alignment is incorrect.

Fig. 9.1 Cell cycle checkpoints

9.1 The Cell Cycle



Control of the Cell Cycle, cont.

checkpoints, cont. G1: Is DNA damaged? If so, repair, otherwise apoptosis.

9.1 The Cell Cycle



Control of the Cell Cycle, cont.

apoptosis: programmed cell death mitosis and apoptosis are opposing processes that help maintain homeostasis
apoptosis is important in development and preventing tumors  cell division is important in growth and repair


9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis Mitosis and cytokinesis result in two identical daughter cells  Eukaryotic Chromosomes

chromosomes contain strands of DNA and associated proteins histones are proteins that help organize the chromosome during interphase, chromosomes exist as threads called chromatin

9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis Mitosis and cytokinesis result in two identical daughter cells, cont.  Eukaryotic Chromosomes, cont.

chromosomes contain strands of DNA and associated protein, cont. chromatin coils and condenses in preparation for cell division

Fig. 9A Chromosome structure

Chromosome condensation

before

after

9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis



Eukaryotic Chromosomes, cont.

each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes called the diploid (2n) number the 2 means there are two of each kind of chromosome somatic cells (body cells) have the diploid number in humans, 2n=46

9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis



Eukaryotic Chromosomes, cont.

half the diploid number of chromosomes is called the haploid (n) number n means there is only one of each kind of chromosome gametes (reproductive cells) have the haploid number in animals in humans, n=23

9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis



Eukaryotic Chromosomes, cont.

for a 2n parent cell to produce two 2n daughter cells, DNA must first be duplicated when a chromosome is copied, each identical double helix is called a chromatid a duplicated chromosome thus consists of two sister chromatids

9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis



Eukaryotic Chromosomes, cont.

for a 2n parent cell to produce two 2n daughter cells, DNA must first be duplicated, cont. sister chromatids attach to each other at the centromere during nuclear division, the sister chromosomes separate, giving rise to two identical daughter chromosomes

Fig. 9.3 Duplicated chromosomes

9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis



Phases of Mitosis

the centrosome (microtubuleorganizing center of cell) divides before mitosis

centrosomes contain centrioles in animal cells  centrosomes organize the mitotic spindle, which contains many microtubule fibers  spindle made from tubulin from disintegrating cytoskeleton


Videos
G2 Mitosis.swf, 120201.mov Prophase  120302.mov, 120202.mov, 120303.mov, 120203.mov, 120304.mov Metaphase  120204.mov, 120305.mov Anaphase  120205.mov, 120306.mov Telophase  120206.mov, 120307.mov Cytokinesis  120207.mov Differences between animals and plants  120308.swf, 120309.swf


9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis



Phases of Mitosis, cont.

Prophase chromatin condenses and chromosomes become visible nucleolus disappears and nuclear envelope fragments centrosomes move apart and spindle begins forming

9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis



Phases of Mitosis, cont.

Prophase, cont.

9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis



Phases of Mitosis, cont.

Prometaphase (late prophase) kinetochore fibers appear on each side of the centromere kinetochore fibers attach sister chromatids to opposite poles of the spindle

9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis



Phases of Mitosis, cont.

Prometaphase, cont.

9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis



Phases of Mitosis, cont.

Metaphase chromosomes align in center of cell (metaphase plate) polar (nonattached) spindle fibers overlap at metaphase plate

9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis



Phases of Mitosis, cont.

Metaphase, cont.

9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis



Phases of Mitosis, cont.

Anaphase sister chromatids separate and are pulled to opposite poles poles move farther apart as well

9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis



Phases of Mitosis, cont.

Anaphase, cont.

9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis



Phases of Mitosis, cont.

Telophase chromosomes arrive at poles spindle breaks down new nuclear envelope forms chromosomes decondense

9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis



Phases of Mitosis, cont.

Telophase, cont.

9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis



Cytokinesis in Animal and Plant Cells

Animal cells cleavage furrow begins to form at end of anaphase actin filaments form a contractile ring that pinches the cell in half

Fig. 9.5 Cytokinesis in animal cells

9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis



Cytokinesis in Animal and Plant Cells, cont.

Plant cells vesicles migrate and fuse into a cell plate between the two new cells the cell plate is new membrane and ultimately fuses with the old membrane the new membrane forms a new cell wall

Fig. 9.6 Cytokinesis in plant cells

Mitosis animation

9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis



The Functions of Mitosis

growth and repair meristematic tissue in plants allows plants to grow taller and wider stem cells in humans
produce new cells throughout lifetime  might be useful for curing or treating illnesses


9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis



The Functions of Mitosis, cont.

allow nucleus to have more control over the cell
increase surface area:volume ratio surface area (membrane) supplies materials volume (cytoplasm) demands raw materials membrane needs to be large enough to supply enough raw materials

9.3 The Cell Cycle and Cancer Cancer cells grow and divide uncontrollably

neoplasm: abnormal growth of cells a benign neoplasm is not cancerous a malignant neoplasm is cancerous cancer results from mutation of genes that regulate the cell cycle

9.3 The Cell Cycle and Cancer Cancer cells grow and divide uncontrollably

What normally controls the rate of cell division? 1. environmental factors: food, water, temperature 2. contact inhibition: touching other cells 3. growth factors: inappropriate GF could result in cancer

Contact inhibition of cell division

9.3 The Cell Cycle and Cancer  Characteristics of Cancer Cells

carcinogenesis: development of cancer
cancer cells lack differentiation nonspecialized do not contribute to body function
cancer cells have abnormal nuclei nuclei are enlarged mutated chromosomes gene amplification no apoptosis

9.3 The Cell Cycle and Cancer  Characteristics of Cancer Cells, cont.

cancer cells form tumors do not exhibit contact inhibition grow on top of each other in layers (tumor)

9.3 The Cell Cycle and Cancer  Characteristics of Cancer Cells, cont.

cancer cells undergo metastasis and angiogenesis not encapsulated and can invade surrounding tissue (metastasis) angiogenesis: formation of new blood vessels

9.3 The Cell Cycle and Cancer  Origin of Cancer

mutations in genes coding for DNA repair enzymes
mutations in proto-oncogenes (which promote the cell cycle) and in tumor suppressor genes (which inhibit the cell cycle)
mutations affecting the function of telomerase

9.3 The Cell Cycle and Cancer  Regulation of the Cell Cycle

Oncogenes mutated proto-oncogenes faulty receptor in stimulatory pathway abnormal proteins excess cyclin examples include ras gene family and BRCA1

9.3 The Cell Cycle and Cancer  Regulation of the Cell Cycle, cont.

Tumor Suppressor Genes inhibitory proteins fail to be active promoters of apoptosis fail to be active examples include the RB gene and p53


p53 is the most commonly mutated gene in human cancers

Fig. 9.8a Causes of mutation

Fig. 9.8b Effect of growth factor

Fig. 9.8c Pathways

Fig. 9.8d Cancerous skin cell

9.4 Prokaryotic Cell Division Prokaryotes reproduce asexually by binary fission  The Prokaryotic Chromosome
prokaryotes have one, circular chromosome and no nucleus
there are few associated proteins
appears as a dense, irregularly shaped region called the nucleoid

9.4 Prokaryotic Cell Division  Binary Fission

1. cell enlarges
2. DNA is replicated
3. the two chromosomes attach to plasma membrane
4. cell elongates, separating chromosomes
5. new plasma membrane and cell wall divide cell
can occur quickly--E. coli have a generation time of ~20 min.

Fig. 9 Binary fission

9.4 Prokaryotic Cell Division  Comparing Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

cell division in unicellular organisms is for reproduction
cell division in multicellular organisms is for growth, renewal, and repair

9.4 Prokaryotic Cell Division  Comparing Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes, cont.

9.4 Prokaryotic Cell Division  Comparing Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes, cont.

Lab: Count Cells in Each Phase