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    "Atomic model" redirects here. For the unrelated term in mathematical logic, see Atomic model (mathematical logic). This article is about the historical models of the atom. For a history of the study of how atoms combine to form molecules, see History of molecular theory. In chemistry and physics, atomic theory is a theory of the nature of matter, which states that matter is composed of discrete units called atoms, as opposed to the obsolete notion that matter could be divided into any arbitrarily small quantity. It began as a philosophical concept in ancient Greece (Democritus) and India and entered the scientific mainstream in the early 19th century when discoveries in the field of chemistry showed that matter did indeed behave as if it were made up of particles. The word "atom" (from the ancient Greek adjective atomos, 'indivisible'[1]) was applied to the basic particle that constituted a chemical element, because the chemists of the era believed that these were the fundamental particles of matter. However, around the turn of the 20th century, through various experiments with electromagnetism and radioactivity, physicists discovered that the so-called "indivisible atom" was actually a conglomerate of various subatomic particles (chiefly, electrons, protons and neutrons) which can exist separately from each other. In fact, in certain extreme environments such as neutron stars, extreme temperature and pressure prevents atoms from existing at all. Since atoms were found to be actually divisible, physicists later invented the term "elementary particles" to describe indivisible particles. The field of science which studies subatomic particles is particle physics, and it is in this field that physicists hope to discover the true fundamental nature of matter.

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    "Atomic model" redirects here. For the unrelated term in mathematical logic, see Atomic model (mathematical logic). This article is about the historical models of the atom. For a history of the study of how atoms combine to form molecules, see History of molecular theory. In chemistry and physics, atomic theory is a theory of the nature of matter, which states that matter is composed of discrete units called atoms, as opposed to the obsolete notion that matter could be divided into any arbitrarily small quantity. It began as a philosophical concept in ancient Greece (Democritus) and India and entered the scientific mainstream in the early 19th century when discoveries in the field of chemistry showed that matter did indeed behave as if it were made up of particles. The word "atom" (from the ancient Greek adjective atomos, 'indivisible'[1]) was applied to the basic particle that constituted a chemical element, because the chemists of the era believed that these were the fundamental particles of matter. However, around the turn of the 20th century, through various experiments with electromagnetism and radioactivity, physicists discovered that the so-called "indivisible atom" was actually a conglomerate of various subatomic particles (chiefly, electrons, protons and neutrons) which can exist separately from each other. In fact, in certain extreme environments such as neutron stars, extreme temperature and pressure prevents atoms from existing at all. Since atoms were found to be actually divisible, physicists later invented the term "elementary particles" to describe indivisible particles. The field of science which studies subatomic particles is particle physics, and it is in this field that physicists hope to discover the true fundamental nature of matter.

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    34 views50 pages

    Atomic Theory by Abhishek Jaguessar

    Uploaded by

    reedoye21
    "Atomic model" redirects here. For the unrelated term in mathematical logic, see Atomic model (mathematical logic). This article is about the historical models of the atom. For a history of the study of how atoms combine to form molecules, see History of molecular theory. In chemistry and physics, atomic theory is a theory of the nature of matter, which states that matter is composed of discrete units called atoms, as opposed to the obsolete notion that matter could be divided into any arbitrarily small quantity. It began as a philosophical concept in ancient Greece (Democritus) and India and entered the scientific mainstream in the early 19th century when discoveries in the field of chemistry showed that matter did indeed behave as if it were made up of particles. The word "atom" (from the ancient Greek adjective atomos, 'indivisible'[1]) was applied to the basic particle that constituted a chemical element, because the chemists of the era believed that these were the fundamental particles of matter. However, around the turn of the 20th century, through various experiments with electromagnetism and radioactivity, physicists discovered that the so-called "indivisible atom" was actually a conglomerate of various subatomic particles (chiefly, electrons, protons and neutrons) which can exist separately from each other. In fact, in certain extreme environments such as neutron stars, extreme temperature and pressure prevents atoms from existing at all. Since atoms were found to be actually divisible, physicists later invented the term "elementary particles" to describe indivisible particles. The field of science which studies subatomic particles is particle physics, and it is in this field that physicists hope to discover the true fundamental nature of matter.

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    Elements and the Periodic Table BY ABHISHEK JAGUESSAR

    Classification is arranging items into groups or categories according to some criteria. The act of classifying creates a pattern that helps you recognize and understand the behavior of fish, chemicals, or any matter in your surroundings.

     Classifying

    Matter

    Matter is usually defined as anything that has mass and occupies space.

    Total disorder Lots of empty space

    Disorder Some space Particles closer together

    Order Particles fixed in position

    Gas

    Liquid

    Solid

    Solids, Liquids, and Gases


    

    Gases have no defined shape or defined volume


    

    Low density

    Liquids flow and can be poured from one container to another


    

    Indefinite shape and takes on the shape of the container. Have a definite shape.

    Solids have a definite volume


    

    Mixtures and Pure Substances


    

    A mixture has unlike parts and a composition that varies from sample to sample A heterogeneous mixture has physically distinct parts with different properties. A homogeneous mixture is the same throughout the sample Pure substances are substances with a fixed composition

    A classification scheme for matter.

    A physical change is a change that does not alter the identity of the matter. A chemical change is a change that does alter the identity of the matter. A compound is a pure substance that can be decomposed by a chemical change into simpler substances with a fixed mass ratio An element is a pure substance which cannot be broken down into anything simpler by either physical or chemical means.

    Sugar (A) is a compound that can be easily decomposed to simpler substances by heating. (B) One of the simpler substances is the black element carbon, which cannot be further decomposed by chemical or physical means.

    EXAMPLE
    Isopropyl alcohol is a A. heterogeneous mixture B. homogeneous mixture C. pure substance D. Compound E. pure substance and compound

     Elements

    Reconsidering the Fire Element


    

    The phlogiston theory viewed phlogiston as a component of all matter. The burning of a material was considered to be the escaping of phlogiston from the matter. If a material did not burn, it was considered to contain no phlogiston.

    The phlogiston theory. (A) In this theory, burning was considered to be the escape of phlogiston into the air. (B) Smelting combined phlogistonphlogiston-poor ore with phlogiston from a fire to make a metal. (C) Metal rusting was considered to be the slow escape of phlogiston from a

    Discovery of Modern Elements


    

    Antoine Lavoisier suggested that burning was actually a chemical combination with oxygen. Lavoisier realized that there needed to be a new concept of elements, compounds, and chemical change. We now know that there are 89 naturally-occurring naturallyelements and at least 23 short-lived and artificially shortprepared.

    Priestley produced a gas (oxygen) by using sunlight to heat mercuric oxide kept in a closed container. The oxygen forced some of the mercury out of the jar as it was produced, increasing the volume about five times.

    Lavoisier heated a measured amount of mercury to form the red oxide of mercury. He measured the amount of oxygen removed from the jar and the amount of red oxide formed. When the reaction was reversed, he found the original amounts of mercury and oxygen.

    Names of Elements
    

    The first 103 elements have internationally accepted names, which are derived from:
    The compound or substance in which the element was discovered  An unusual or identifying property of the element  Places, cities, and countries  Famous scientists  Greek mythology  Astronomical objects.
    

    Here are some of the symbols Dalton used for atoms of elements and molecules of compounds. He probably used a circle for each because, like the ancient Greeks, he thought of atoms as tiny, round hard spheres.

    The elements of aluminum, Iron, Oxygen, and Silicon make up about 88 percent of the earth's solid surface. Water on the surface and in the air as clouds and fog is made up of hydrogen and oxygen. The air is 99 percent nitrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon make up 97 percent of a person. Thus almost everything you see in this picture us made up of just six elements.

    Atomic theory

    Daltons Postulates
    1. Every element is composed of tiny particles called atoms 2. All atoms of a given element are identical 1. Atoms of different elements have different properties 3. Atoms of an element are NOT changed into atoms of another element by chemical processes 1. Matter can neither be created nor destroyed 4. Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine

    Daltons Laws
    1. The Law of Constant Composition:
    Any given compound always consists of the same atoms and the same ratio of atoms. For example, water always consists of oxygen and hydrogen atoms, and it is always 89 percent oxygen by mass and 11 percent hydrogen by mass

    2. The Law of Conservation of Mass:


    The total mass of materials before and after a chemical reaction must be the same. For example, if we combine 89 grams of oxygen with 11 grams of hydrogen under the appropriate conditions, 100 grams of water will be producedno more and no less.

    Daltons Laws
    3. The Law of Multiple Proportions:
    If two elements combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one of the elements that can combine with a given mass of the other element are related by factors of small whole numbers For example, water has an oxygen-to-hydrogen mass ratio of 7.9:1. Hydrogen peroxide, another compound consisting of oxygen and hydrogen, has an oxygen-to-hydrogen mass ratio of 15.8:1. The ratio of these two ratios gives a small whole number.

    MODERN ATOMIC THEORY

    Chemical Symbols  There are about a dozen common elements that have s single capitalized letter for their symbol  The rest, that have permanent names have two letters.  the first is capitalized and the second is lower case.  Some elements have symbols from their Latin names.  Ten of the elements have symbols from their Latin or German names.

    Symbols and Atomic Structure  A molecule is a particle that is composed of two or more atoms held together by a chemical bond.  Isotopes are atoms of an element with identical chemical properties, but different masses due to a difference in the number of neutrons.  The atomic mass of an element is the average of all the atomic masses of the isotopes.  an isotopes contribution is determined by its relative abundance.

     The

    mass of an element is the mass of the element compared to an isotope of carbon Carbon 12.  Carbon 12 is assigned an atomic mass of 12.00 g.  12.00 is one atomic mass unit  The number of protons and neutrons in an atom number. is its mass number.  Atomic numbers are whole numbers  Mass numbers are whole numbers  The atomic mass is not a whole number.

    Atomic Mass

    Atomic Number

    Symbol

    Charge (if ion)

    Hydrogen Protons: 1 Neutrons: 0 Electrons: 1

    1 1

    Sodium Protons: 11 Neutrons: 12 Electrons: 11

    23 11

    Na

    Rhenium

    186 75

    Re

    Protons: 75 Neutrons: 111 Electrons: 75

    Rhenium isotope

    187 75

    Re

    Protons: 75 Neutrons: 112 Electrons: 75

    EXAMPLE
    How many protons, neutrons and electrons are found in an atom of

    133 55

    Cs

    Atomic number = protons and electrons There are 55 protons and 55 electrons Mass number = sum of protons and neutrons 133 55 = 78 There are 78 neutrons

     The

    Periodic Law

    Dmitri Medeleev gave us a functional scheme with which to classify elements.


    

    Mendeleev s scheme was based on chemical properties of the elements. It was noticed that the chemical properties of elements increased in a periodic manner. The periodicity of the elements was demonstrated by Medeleev when he used the table to predict to occurrence and chemical properties of elements which had not yet been discovered.

    Mendeleev left blank spaces in his table when the properties of the elements above and below did not seem to match. The existence of unknown elements was predicted by Mendeleev on the basis of the blank spaces. When the unknown elements were discovered, it was found that Mendeleev had closely predicted the properties of the elements as well as their discovery.

    The Periodic Law


    

    Similar physical and chemical properties recur periodically when the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number.

     The

    Modern Periodic Table

    Introduction
    

     

     

    The periodic table is made up of rows of elements and columns. An element is identified by its chemical symbol. The number above the symbol is the atomic number The number below the symbol is the rounded atomic weight of the element. A row is called a period A column is called a group

    (A) Periods of the periodic table, and (B) groups of the periodic table.

    Periodic Patterns
    

    The chemical behavior of elements is determined by its electron configuration Energy levels are quantized so roughly correspond to layers of electrons around the nucleus. A shell is all the electrons with the same value of n.
    

    n is a row in the periodic table.

    Each period begins with a new outer electron shell

    Each period ends with a completely filled outer shell that has the maximum number of electrons for that shell. The number identifying the A families identifies the number of electrons in the outer shell, except helium The outer shell electrons are responsible for chemical reactions. Group A elements are called representative elements Group B elements are called transition elements. elements.

    Chemical Families
    

    IA are called alkali metals because the react with water to from an alkaline solution Group IIA are called the alkali earth metals because they are reactive, but not as reactive as Group IA.
    

    They are also soft metals like Earth.

    Group VIIA are the halogens


    These need only one electron to fill their outer shell  They are very reactive.
    

    Group VIIIA are the noble gases as they have completely filled outer shells
    

    They are almost non reactive.

    Four chemical families of the periodic table: the alkali metals (IA), the alkaline earth metals (IIA), halogens (VII), and the noble gases (VIIIA).

    Metal: Elements that are usually solids at room temperature. Most elements are metals. Non-Metal: Elements in the upper right corner of the periodic Table. Their chemical and physical properties are different from metals. Metalloid: Elements that lie on a diagonal line between the Metals and non-metals. Their chemical and physical properties are intermediate between the two.

    When an atom or molecule gain or loses an electron it becomes an ion.  A cation has lost an electron and therefore has a positive charge  An anion has gained an electron and therefore has a negative charge.

    Elements with 1, 2, or 3 electrons in their outer shell tend to lose electrons to fill their outer shell and become cations.
    

    These are the metals which always tend to lose electrons.

    Elements with 5 to 7 electrons in their outer shell tend to gain electrons to fill their outer shell and become anions.
    

    These are the nonmetals which always tend to gain electrons.

    Semiconductors (metalloids) occur at the dividing line between metals and nonmetals.

    EXAMPLE
    What would the charge be on a sodium ion? Since sodium in in Group IA it is a metal and so would LOSE an electron You can tell how many would be lost by the group number Group 1A elements lose 1 electron

    So the charge would be +1


    Remember an electron is negatively charged. When you lose them atom becomes positively charged when you gain them it becomes negatively charged

    EXAMPLE
    How would you right the symbol for the sodium CATION?

    How many outer electrons does sodium have before it loses one?

    Na

    +1

    It has 1remember the group number!

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