Area IIA: The Living World Ecosystem Structure (Biomes)

Climate and the Biosphere Climate is dictated by temperature and rainfall

climate: prevailing weather conditions in a particular region

determined by: temperature rainfall which are in turn influenced by: variations in solar radiation distribution due to the tilt of the Earth as it revolves around the sun other effects

Climate and the Biosphere

effect of solar radiation

because Earth is a sphere, suns rays are more direct at equator because of Earths tilt, there are seasons because of Earths rotation, winds are deflected into three large circulation cells in each hemisphere, affecting the location of rainfall because of Earths rotation, winds, and therefore storms, rotate

Latitudinal variation in sunlight intensity

Seasonal variation in sunlight intensity

Global air circulation and precipitation

Global wind patterns

Climate and the Biosphere

effect of latitude (distance from equator)

as latitude increases: average temperature decreases more atmosphere for light to pass through seasonal variation increases changes in temperature changes in day length amount of light received decreases

Climate and the Biosphere

effect of altitude (distance above sea level)

as altitude increases: air pressure decreases drier less oxygen temperature decreases

Fig. 6-18 Effects of altitude and latitude

Altitude

Mountain Ice and snow Tundra (herbs, lichens, mosses) Coniferous Forest Deciduous Forest Tropical Forest Tropical Forest Deciduous Forest Coniferous Forest Tundra (herbs, lichens, mosses) Polar ice and snow

Latitude

Climate and the Biosphere

temperature zones
tropical (equatorial): year round growing season for plants temperate: winters mild to cold, summers mild to hot sub-arctic: winters too cold and growing season too short for deciduous trees arctic: growing season too short for trees

Climate and the Biosphere

other effects
topography affects climate mountains produce rain shadows oceans affect climate oceans result in milder temperatures of coastal areas (maritime climates) oceans can produce monsoons lakes can affect climate lake effect

Rain shadows

Onshore breezes

Terrestrial Ecosystems The distribution of biomes is determined by physical factors such as climate

a biome is a major type of terrestrial ecosystem

it has a particular mix of plants and animals that are adapted to living under certain environmental conditions they are usually determined by the amount of precipitation and temperature

Pattern of biome distribution

16

Pattern of biome distribution

17

Pattern of biome distribution

Temperature Arctic/alpine Tundra Subarctic/subalpine Tundra Taiga Conifer Temperate High Desert

Chaparral
Grassland

Forest

Mixed Deciduous

Tropical

Low Desert

Savanna

Rain Forest

Very dry

Very wet

Precipitation (moisture)

Fig. 6-16 Earths major biomes

Tropic of Cancer Equator

Tropic of Capricorn

Arctic tundra (polar grasslands) Boreal forest (taiga), evergreen coniferous forest (e.g., montane coniferous forest) Temperate deciduous forest Temperate grassland Dry woodlands and shrublands (chaparral)

Desert Tropical rain forest, tropical evergreen forest Tropical deciduous forest Tropical scrub forest Tropical savanna, thorn forest

Semidesert, arid grassland Mountains (complex zonation) Ice

Earths major biomes

Fig. 4-10 Major biomes along 39 in US

Coastal chaparral Coniferous and scrub forest Desert Coniferous Prairie forest grassland Deciduous forest

Coastal mountain ranges

Sierra Nevada Mountains

Great American Desert

Rocky Mountains

Mississippi Great River Valley Plains

Appalachian Mountains

15,000 ft 10,000 ft 5,000 ft

Average annual precipitation

100-125 cm (40-50 in.) 75-100 cm (30-40 in.) 50-75 cm (20-30 in.) 25-50 cm (10-20 in.) Below 25 cm (0-10 in.)

Terrestrial Ecosystems Deserts have little precipitation and little vegetation

desert: area where evaporation exceeds precipitation

low annual precipitation (dry) sparse, widely spaced, mostly low vegetation 30% of Earths land surface do not retain heat well at night tropical, temperate, or polar organisms must stay cool and conserve water relatively fragile

Distribution of tropical and temp. desert

Fig. 6-19a Tropical desert

Tropical desert (Saudi Arabia)

Fig. 6-19b Temperate desert

Temperate desert (Reno, Nevada)

Fig. 6-19c Polar desert

Polar desert (northwest China)

Terrestrial Ecosystems Grasslands have enough precipitation to support grasses but not forests

grassland: area with enough precipitation to support grasses

usually found in interiors of continents drought, grazing, and fires keep large numbers of shrubs and trees from growing tropical (hot with on-and-off rain), temperate (temperature extremes and fertile soil), and polar

Distribution of savanna

Fig. 6-22a Tropical grassland (savanna)

Tropical grassland (savanna) (Harare, Zimbabwe)

Distribution of temperate grassland

Fig. 6-22b Temperate grassland

Temperate grassland (Lawrence, Kansas)

Distribution of tundra

Fig. 6-22c Polar grassland (arctic tundra)

Polar grassland (arctic tundra) (Fort Yukon, Alaska)

Fig. 6-23a African savanna

Cape buffalo Beisa oryx Topi

Wildebeest

Warthog

Thompson's gazelle

Waterbuck

Grant's zebra

Dry Grassland

Moist Grassland

Fig. 6-23b African savanna

Giraffe

African elephant Gerenuk

Black rhino

Dik-dik

East African eland

Blue duiker

Greater kudu

Bushbuck

Dry Thorn Scrub

Riverine Forest

Terrestrial Ecosystems Forests have enough precipitation to support stands of trees

forest: area with enough precipitation to support trees

tropical (warm, high humidity, heavy rainfall), temperate (temperature extremes and fertile soil), and boreal (polar) major types: tropical rain forest, temperate deciduous forest, temperate rain forest, evergreen coniferous forest

Distribution of tropical rain forest

Fig. 6-28a Tropical rain forest

Tropical rain forest (Manaus, Brazil)

Distribution of temperate deciduous for.

Fig. 6-28b Temperate deciduous forest

Temperate deciduous forest (Nashville, Tennessee)

Distribution of taiga

Fig. 6-28c Evergreen coniferous forest

Polar evergreen coniferous forest (boreal forest, taiga) (Moscow, Russia)

Fig. 6-30 Stratification in rain forest

45 40 35 Height (meters) 30 25 20 15 10 5
Black-crowned antpitta Brazilian tapir Wooly opossum Harpy eagle

Emergent layer

Toco toucan

Canopy

Understory

Shrub layer Ground layer

Terrestrial Ecosystems Mountains are high-elevation islands of biodiversity

mountains feature rapid changes in altitude, climate, soil, and vegetation over short distances
prone to soil erosion often home to species found nowhere else

Terrestrial Ecosystems Humans disturb different biomes in different ways

deserts
large desert cities soil destruction by off-road vehicles soil salinization from irrigation depletion of underground water supplies land disturbance and pollution from mining storage of toxic and radioactive wastes large arrays of solar cells and solar collectors

Terrestrial Ecosystems

grasslands
conversion to cropland (tropical and temperate) release of CO2 to atmosphere from burning and conversion of grassland to cropland overgrazing by livestock (tropical and temp.) damage to arctic tundra by oil production, air and water pollution, and off-road vehicles

forests
clearing and degradation for agriculture, livestock grazing, timber harvesting, urban development conversion to less biodiverse tree plantations damage to soils from off-road vehicles

Terrestrial Ecosystems

mountains
landless poor migrating uphill to survive timber extraction mining hydroelectric dams and reservoirs increasing tourism (such as hiking and skiing) air pollution from industrial and urban centers increased ultraviolet radiation from ozone depletion soil damage from off-road vehicles

Aquatic Ecosystems: Introduction Aquatic ecosystems can be classified as freshwater or saltwater; they interact and are joined by water cycle
cover about 71% of the Earths surface salinity determines the major types of organisms found in an aquatic environment food webs are complex due to fluidity of medium, variety of bottom habitats more difficult to study and manage/count

physical boundaries are less fixed large and less visible

Aquatic Ecosystems: Introduction

four major types of organisms in aquatic systems

plankton are free-floating, weakly swimming, generally one-celled organisms phytoplankton (plant plankton) zooplankton (animal plankton) includes protists, small crustaceans, jellyfish ultraplankton (photosynthetic bacteria) nekton (fish, turtles, and whales) benthos (bottom dwellers); barnacles, oysters, worms, lobsters, and crabs decomposers break down organic matter into simple nutrients for use by producers

Aquatic Ecosystems: Introduction

aquatic zones are stratified

light euphotic zone: upper layer w/ enough light for photosynthesis DO higher here and CO2 lower due to photosynthesis aphotic zone: lower layer w/ little light DO lower here and CO2 higher due to cellular respiration temperature gradients caused by solar heating thermocline: thin layer of rapid temperature change

Aquatic Ecosystems: Introduction

stratification, continued

material benthic zone: bottom of all aquatic biomes; made of sand and organic and inorganic sediments benthos: communities of organisms detritus: dead organic matter

temperature, sunlight availability, dissolved oxygen, and nutrient availability determine types and numbers of producers found in these zones

Aquatic Ecosystems: Freshwater Life Zones

Freshwater life zones are linked to nearby terrestrial biomes and influenced by water flow, climate, etc.
contain less than 1% by volume of salt two types

standing bodies of water (lakes, ponds, wetlands) moving bodies of water (streams, rivers)

Freshwater and saltwater life zones

Aquatic Ecosystems: Freshwater Life Zones

lakes are large, natural bodies of standing water found in depressions

fed by rainfall, melting snow, and streams consist of four distinct zones depending on depth and distance from shore littoral: shallow, well-lit, close to shore; contains rooted plants limnetic: well-lit, further from shore; contains phytoplankton profundal: deep, aphotic region, low DO benthic: decomposers and detritus feeders; sediment washing and dropping detritus feed this area

Fig. 7-16 Lake zones

Sunlight

Green frog

Painted turtle

Blue-winged teal

Muskrat

Pond snail

Littoral zone

Limnetic zone Diving beetle Plankton

Profundal zone

Benthic zone

Yellow perch

Bloodworms

Northern pike

Zones of a lake

Zones of a lake

Zones of Lakes

Limnetic zone:Phytoplankton Littoral zone: Rooted plants Profundal: No Producers

Compensation Point Respiration > Photosynthesis

58

Aquatic Ecosystems: Freshwater Life Zones

lakes, continued
stratification of water occurs in deep temperate lakes into temperature zones; no mixing occurs turnover of water in fall and spring brings up nutrients, reoxygenates bottom levels, and evens out water temperature often classified by nutrient status oligotrophic lake: nutrient-poor newly formed, deep, crystal-clear blue or green water, low NPP eutrophic lake: nutrient-rich typically shallow with murky water, low visibility, high NPP

Spring and fall overturns

Oligotrophic lake

Eutrophic lake

Fig. 7-17 Oligotrophic vs. eutrophic lakes

Sunlight

Little shore vegetation Limnetic zone Profundal zone

Narrow littoral zone Low concentration of nutrients and plankton Sparse fish population

Sleepily sloping shorelines Sand, gravel, rock bottom

Oligotrophic lake

Sunlight

Much shore vegetation High concentration of nutrients and plankton Limnetic zone Profundal zone Eutrophic lake Dense fish population

Wide littoral zone

Gently sloping shorelines Silt, sand, clay bottom

Aquatic Ecosystems: Freshwater Life Zones

rivers create different aquatic conditions and habitats

surface water does not sink into the ground runoff is surface water that flows into streams and rivers, and the area it drains is called a watershed or drainage basin three aquatic life zones can be identified source zone: narrow, fast moving; high DO, light is available, but productivity is low transition zone: wider, deeper streams that flow down gentler slopes; warmer water; more nutrients; more producers; less DO floodplain zone: wider, deeper rivers; warmer water; less DO; slower flow

Fig. 7-18 Stream aquatic zones

Rain and snow Lake Glacier Rapids Waterfall Tributary Flood plain Oxbow lake Salt marsh Delta Ocean

Deposited sediment
Source Zone

Transition Zone

Water Floodplain Zone Sediment

Aquatic Ecosystems: Freshwater Life Zones

rivers, continued

streams are fairly open ecosystems and receive many nutrients from surrounding lands farms, power plants, cities, and recreation areas are often found in floodplains this also increases excessive nutrient input and pollutant input into the river system

inland wetlands cover the land for a part or all of each year

provide a number of free ecological services filtering toxic wastes/pollutants absorbing/storing excess water from storms providing habitats for a variety of species

Aquatic Ecosystems: Freshwater Life Zones

wetlands, continued
marshes: frequently or continually inundated with water; characterized by presence of rushes, reeds, and other grasses; very productive swamps: dominated by either woody plants or shrubs bogs: characterized by acidic waters, peat deposits, and sphagnum moss; receive water from precipitation; nutrient poor also prairie potholes, floodplains, and arctic tundra in summer

Aquatic Ecosystems: Freshwater Life Zones

human activities have four major impacts on freshwater systems

dams, diversions, and canals fragment ~60% of the worlds large rivers and destroy habitats flood control dikes and levees alter rivers and destroy aquatic habitats cities and farmlands add pollutants. wetlands have been drained or covered with buildings; the U.S. has lost more than 50% of its wetlands since the 1780s these systems are able to recover when destructive practices are stopped or reduced

Aquatic Ecosystems: Saltwater Life Zones

Oceans have two major life zones: the coastal zone and the open sea

the coastal zone interacts with the land

much affected by human activities ~40% of world population lives along coasts; >50% of U.S. lives w/in 62 miles of coast extends from high-tide mark on land to edge of continental shelf high net primary productivity per unit area 10% of the oceans but 90% of marine species ample sunlight and nutrient flow from land distributed by wind/currents two major ecosystems: estuaries, seashores

Aquatic Ecosystems: Saltwater Life Zones

the coastal zone, continued

rocky, sandy, or muddy estuary: partially enclosed body of water where fresh water and seawater meet and mix subject to tidal rhythms and runoff from land coastal bays, tidal marshes, fjords, some deltas, and lagoons are all estuaries mudflats, mangrove swamps (tropical and subtropical zones), and salt marshes (temperate zones) are often associated w/ estuaries occur at mouths of rivers collect nutrients carried by rivers

Estuary structure and function

Nith River estuary

Exe estuary

Klamath river estuary

Fig. 7-7 Betsiboka River estuary

DO NOT POST TO INTERNET

Mudflats

Mangrove plant

Mangrove swamp

Mangrove community

Fig. 7-2 Oceans, reefs, mangroves, lakes

Lakes Rivers Coral reefs Mangroves

Aquatic Ecosystems: Saltwater Life Zones

the coastal zone, continued

estuaries, continued wetlands/estuaries make nutrients available due to constant stirring of bottom sediment ecological services: filter toxic pollutants and excess plant nutrients reduce storm damage provide nursery sites for aquatic species humans are destroying/degrading these ecosystems; one-third have already been lost

Aquatic Ecosystems: Saltwater Life Zones

the coastal zone, continued

seashores are constantly bombarded by the sea as tides roll in an out organisms in the intertidal zone survive daily changes in wet/dry conditions and salinity barrier beaches/sandy shores are gently sloping; organisms tunnel or burrow in sand barrier islands: low, sandy, narrow islands that form offshore from a coastline generally run parallel to the shore help protect the mainland, estuaries, and coastal wetlands from storm damage damaged by human habitation; almost 1/4 of barrier islands are developed

Fig. 7-9a Intertidal zone

Rocky Shore Beach Sea star Hermit crab Shore crab

High tide Periwinkle

Sea urchin

Anemone

Mussel Low tide

Sculpin

Barnacles Kelp Monterey flatworm Nudibranch Sea lettuce

Fig. 7-9b Barrier beach

Barrier beach Beach flea

Peanut worm Blue crab Clam Dwarf olive High tide

Tiger beetle

Silversides Low tide

Sandpiper Mole shrimp

Ghost shrimp

White sand Sand dollar Moon snail macoma

Barrier islands

Aquatic Ecosystems: Saltwater Life Zones

the coastal zone, continued

seashore, continued barrier islands, continued sand is constantly shifting due to winds and parallel currents along the islands one or more rows of sand dunes held in place by grass roots are first line of defense against storms; safer to build behind the 2nd set of dunes if at all developers do not consider the protective services that the dunes provide governments often provide funds for rebuilding and insurance at fairly low rates for building on the dunes

Fig. 7-11 Barrier island

Ocean

Beach
Intensive recreation, no building

Primary Dune

Trough

Secondary Dune
No direct passage or building

Back Dune
Most suitable for development

Bay or Lagoon
Intensive recreation

No direct Limited passage recreation or building and walkways

Grasses or shrubs

Taller shrubs

Bay shore No filling Taller shrubs and trees

Aquatic Ecosystems: Saltwater Life Zones

the open sea

low average NPP, but oceans are so large they make the largest contribution to NPP overall zones pelagic division (open sea) neritic province (close to shore): has inorganic nutrients, lots of life oceanic province (far from shore): lacks inorganic nutrients; divided into three zones benthic division (ocean floor) sublittoral zone (continental shelf) bathyal zone (continental slope) abyssal zone (abyssal plain)

Fig. 7-6 Ocean life zones

High tide Low tide Coastal Zone Open Sea Sea level Sun Depth in meters Photosynthesis Darkness Twilight 0 50 Euphotic Zone Estuarine Zone 100 Continental shelf 200

Bathyal Zone

500 1,000 1,500 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 10,000

Abyssal Zone

2004 Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning

Ocean zones

Aquatic Ecosystems: Saltwater Life Zones

the open sea, continued

neritic province coral reefs in shallow coastal zones of tropical and subtropical oceans support a very diverse, complex ecosystem grow slowly vulnerable to damage thrive in clear, warm (1830C), fairly shallow water with a high salinity natural disturbances include severe storms, freshwater floods, and invasions of predatory fish, temperature changes

Coral reef

Aquatic Ecosystems: Saltwater Life Zones

the open sea, continued

neritic province, continued coral reefs, continued greatest threats today are due to sediment runoff and other human activities recovery might be possible when restrictions are imposed and pollution is reduced

Aquatic Ecosystems: Saltwater Life Zones

the open sea, continued

oceanic province (and benthic division) euphotic (epipelagic) zone: lighted, has floating phytoplankton, low nutrient levels except at upwellings, high DO has large, fast-swimming predatory fish like swordfish, shark, and bluefin tuna bathyal zone: dimly lit middle zone; no producers are in this zone has zooplankton and smaller fish

Aquatic Ecosystems: Saltwater Life Zones

the open sea, continued

oceanic province (and benthic division), cont. abyssal zone: dark and very cold with low DO; intense pressure; food falls from above has deposit feeders, or filter feeders hydrothermal vents are present in some areas where specialized bacteria feed on chemical nutrients and are food for other organisms

Aquatic Ecosystems: Saltwater Life Zones

Human impacts

coral reefs
ocean warming soil erosion; algae growth from fertilizer runoff mangrove destruction coral reef bleaching rising sea levels increased UV exposure from ozone depletion using cyanide and dynamite to harvest coral reef fish coral removal for building material, aquariums, and jewelry damage from anchors, ships, and tourist divers

Aquatic Ecosystems: Saltwater Life Zones

Human impacts

marine ecosystems
half of coastal wetlands lost to agriculture and urban development >1/3 of mangrove forests lost since 1980 to agriculture, development, and aquaculture shrimp farms ~10% of worlds beaches eroding because of coastal development and rising sea level ocean bottom habitats degraded by dredging and trawler fishing boats over 25% of coral reefs severely damaged and 11% have been destroyed

Aquatic Ecosystems Natural capital

ecological services
climate moderation nutrient cycling waste treatment and dilution habitats for aquatic and terrestrial species genetic resources and biodiversity scientific information flood control (freshwater) groundwater recharge (freshwater) CO2 absorption (saltwater) reduced storm impact (mangrove, barrier islands, coastal wetlands)

Aquatic Ecosystems Natural capital

economic services
food (including animal and pet feed) transportation corridors and harbors recreation employment drinking water (freshwater) irrigation water (freshwater) hydroelectricity (freshwater) pharmaceuticals (saltwater) coastal habitats for humans (saltwater) offshore oil, natural gas, minerals (saltwater) building materials (saltwater)

Aquatic BiomesMarine Zones

Water
neritic is to marine as littoral is to aquatic oceanic is to marine as limnetic is to aquatic pelagic: all open water, regardless of depth