Cell Structure/ Mitosis & Meiosis

SE Shirley Dept of Pathology

Lecture Objectives
At the end of the lecture, the student should

be able to: Describe the structural features of eukaryotic cells Outline the specialized structural adaptations of epithelial cells Define mitosis and meiosis, and discuss the roles of each in the cell cycle

The Cell
Basic unit of structure and function in living organisms Derived from Latin cella little room First used in a biologic sense by Robert Hooke in 1665 German pathologist, Rudolf Virchow (1821 1905) credited with initiating the study of disease at the cellular level

The Cell

Eukaryotes: e.g. mammals and other higher organisms - characterized by the presence of membrane-bound nucleus Prokaryotes: e.g. bacteria are nonnucleated

Approximately 100 billion cells in humans

Cell Structure

Cell Membrane

Boundary/outer limit of cell contents Composed of protein (about 60%) and lipid (about 40%) Primary lipid is phospholipid: molecules form a 'phospholipid bilayer' Other lipids: cholesterol & glycolipids Proteins are embedded throughout the bilayer

Cell Membrane
Functions:
Selective Transport

barrier

Recognition
Receptor Adhesion Movement

function

Cell Membrane
Selective barrier: Water, non-polar molecules and some small polar molecules can cross; most polar compounds e.g. amino acids, organic acids and inorganic salts have to be transported across.
Transfer Function: bulk transfer (e.g. phagocytosis and pinocytosis), passive diffusion active transfer involving the expenditure of energy (e.g. the sodium pump)

Cell Membrane
Cell Recognition: the cell membrane is associated with antigens by which the body is able to recognize its own cells and tolerate them; cells that are not recognized are attacked by the immune system.
Receptor Function: most compounds that interact with the cell do so at specific points called receptors. Receptors are integral proteins of the membrane that can vary in number or change position under certain circumstances.

Cell Membrane
Cell Movement:

The cell surface is in constant movement; this can be especially appreciated in macrophages, which display a characteristic undulating movement. Projections from the cell surface such as cilia (respiratory epithelium) and flagella (spermatozoa) also assist in movement.

Nucleus
Initiates and regulates most cellular

activities
Bound by inner and outer nuclear envelopes
Contains:

DNA (genetic codes) RNA (essential molecules for protein synthesis)

Nucleus
DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid; double helix of 4

deoxyribonucleotides

Complementary base pairing of adenine(A) with thymine (T) and cytosine (C) with guanine (G) Held together by hydrogen bonds Attached to sugar phosphate backbone

Chromatin = chromosomal material = DNA, histones,

non-histone proteins, RNA

Nucleus
RNA = ribonucleic acid

Genetic information in DNA is transcribed to mRNA (messenger RNA) and translated in the cytoplasm (protein synthesis), with help of tRNA (transfer RNA)

Nucleolus
Sites of ribosome synthesis

Ribosomal DNA is transcribed into rRNA (ribosomal RNA) precursor; further processed into ribosomal subunits which function in protein synthesis in the cytoplasm

The Nucleus in Disease

Hyperchromasia: increased staining of the nucleus usually due to chromatin (e.g. genetic abnormalities DNA)

Active protein synthesis = prominent nucleoli

Nucleoli assembled from specific chromosomal regions (nucleolar organizer regions) which may be disturbed in cancer cells multiple/odd shaped nucleoli

Cytoplasm

Composed largely of water Approx. 8% of protein

High concentrations of potassium, magnesium, phosphate (osmotic pressure within cells is similar to that of the extracellular fluid) Membrane-bound structures = organelles
Filaments and granules

Organelles

Mitochondria
Rough endoplasmic reticulum Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Lysosomes Cytoskeletal system

Mitochondria

Organelles of energy production Products of carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism are oxidized to produce energy Final product = ATP/adenosine triphosphate

Mitochondria

Have a double-membrane: outer membrane & highly convoluted inner membrane Inner membrane has folds called cristae that contain elementary particles; these particles contain enzymes important in ATP production

Endoplasmic reticulum & Golgi apparatus

Biosynthesis and transport of proteins and lipids Flattened sheets or elongated tubules Content depending on cellular metabolic activity

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Series

of membranes studded with ribosomes that are the site of protein production.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Series

of membranes without attached ribosomes that function in synthesis of lipids and processing of proteins (including steroid, carbohydrate and drug metabolism)

Golgi apparatus

Series of flattened sacs and vesicles that functions in the modification and packaging of material synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum Examples: addition of sugars, proteolysis of proteins , sorting of macromoleciles

Lysosomes

Organelles containing a range of lytic enzymes that are involved in the digestion of unwanted extrinsic as well intrinsic material Enzymes include nucleases, proteases, lipases, phosphatases

Cytoskeletal system

Internal scaffolding: system of filaments and microtubules that provides rigidity, as well as allows for movement within the cell (e.g. excretion of material) and locomotion 5 nm actin Intermediate filaments 10 nm - 6 main proteins which vary between cells Microtubules 25 nm tubulin
Microfilaments

Intermediate filaments

Cytokeratin - epithelial cells

Desmin smooth/skeletal muscles

Glial fibrillary acidic protein astrocytes

Neurofilament protein neurones Nuclear lamin nuclei Vimentin mesenchymal cells

Specialized Structural Adaptations Of Epithelial Cells

Epithelial cells

Cover body surfaces (skin) and line body cavities and tracts (e.g. respiratory, gastrointestinal) Functional units of secretory glands

Epithelial Cell Specialization

Cell surface projections

Cilia: facilitate transport along cell surface Microvilli: increase surface area for absorption

Secretory adaptations

Well developed ER and Golgi apparatus

Cell junctions

Cell Junctions

Adjacent cells exhibit specialized junctional areas that allow:

1) Adhesion of cells to each other, in some cases forming a seal to prevent substances passing between them 2) Provision of areas of close contact through which cells can communicate with each other; for cell growth, regeneration and repair communication is critical

Cell Adhesion
The adherence of cells of a similar type is vital for the maintenance of the architecture of tissues and organs.
Adhesion molecules are glycoproteins that are distributed in the cell membrane and which allow for adhesion of cells to each other or the extracellular matrix.

The 5 major families are: the cadherins, the immunoglobulins, the integrins, the selectins and CD44.

Cell Junctions
Occludens type (tight junction):

the membranes of two adjacent cells come into intimate contact; a complete band encircling cells at their free borders is called a zonula occludens; an incomplete band is called a macula occludens.

Cell Junctions
Nexus or gap junction:

the two membranes are separated by an electron-lucent gap of 2 nm through which molecules up to 150 nm in diametercan pass. Gap junctions are kept in close apposition by cell adhesion molecules such as cadherins and integrins.

Cell Junctions
Adherens type: the cell membranes are separated by a gap of about 20nm that is filled by electron-lucent material that glues the cells together. The zonula adherens forms a band around cells and together with the zonula occludens and desmosome constitutes the junctional complex. The macula adherens or desmosome is formed by tonofilaments that do not cross from one cell to the other.

Mitosis & Meiosis

Mitosis

Mechanism of cell division leading to the production of two daughter cells with exactly the same number of chromosomes and DNA content as parent cell Diploid number of chromosomes = 46; 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes; XX in females; XY in males)

Meiosis

Specific type of cell division leading to the production of gametes (ova and spermatazoa) Each gamete contains a haploid number of chromosomes (23; 22 autosomes and one sex chromosome; X in ova and Y in spermatozoa)

Cell cycle

Begins at the completion of one cell division (mitosis) and ends at the completion of the next division
Dividing

phase = Mitosis Resting phase = Interphase

Interphase

Phases:
G1

(resting; variable length)

(G0
S

for quiescent cells)

(DNA replication tetraploid DNA content) (second gap; approx 4-5 hrs)

G2

Mitosis

Thought to be initiated by triggering factors in cytoplasm or from other cells including various growth factors 30-60 minutes Division of nucleus* (karyokinesis) and cytoplasm (cytokinesis)

Mitosis

Prophase: condensation and shortening of

chromosomes/formation of mitotic spindle cell apparatus: centrosomes with intervening microtubules

Metaphase: centromeres attach to centre of

apparatus

Anaphase: centromeres split and each half of

chromosome (chromatid) move to opposite pole

Telophase: nuclear membrane refroms.

Mitosis
Mitosis facilitates:

Increased number of cells increase in size (growth) of organ/organism Replacement of dead cells

Meiosis

Crossover events are possible between maternally and paternally derived chromosomal material Chiasmata = points of junction of the exchanged segments Each gamete contains a haploid number of chromosomes (pairing at fertilization will result in restoration of diploid number)

Info on the Web

The Biology Project at University of Arizona:

Cell Biology http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio/cell_bi o.html