Hydroelectric Power

Dr. Akepati S. Reddy Thapar University Patiala (Punjab) 147 004 INDIA

Hydro-electric Power
Solar radiation drives the water cycle In high rainfall and mountainous areas rainfall runs off and allows capture of some of the energy as hydroelectric power Hydro-electric power plant involves conversion of Potential energykinetic energymechanical energyelectrical energy Situated at the bottom of a deep and steep sided valley or gorge or near the base of a dam Classification of hydro-electric power plants Run of the river power plants or low head power plants - only a few meters head; uses a low dam or weir (may also involve river diversions); electric output variable) High head power plants - involves dams, river diversions and reservoir storage; consistent & reliable; head often >1000 m) Large hydroelectric power plants Small (small, mini and micro) hydroelectric power plants capacity <10 MW, <2 MW and <100 kW) Hydraulic ram pumps (can use 0.5 meter to pump water through 250 meter head) Pumped storage hydroelectric units (90GW is the installed capacity; best option for temporary storage of energy)

Hydro-electric Power (contd..)

Base load hydropower plants and load following hydropower plants (these plants take less than one minute to reach to full load from no load condition) A typical hydro-electric power project includes dams, diversions and Reservoirs; Penstocks, turbines, generators and step up transformers; Power transmission and distribution network grid of power transmission lines, terminal stations (to step-down voltage to subtransmission level and control power flow on the grid transmission lines), sub-transmission lines (to supply power to large customers and distribution substations) distribution substations (includes transformers, meters and control and protective devices) Multipurpose river projects (purposes include Water for irrigation, and for municipal & industrial uses; Flood control; Recreation and tourism development; Fish and wildlife enhancement; Navigation-Inland water transport; etc.)

Hydro-electric power generation scenario

First recorded use of water power - for a clock built around 250 BC First use of moving water to produce electricity - a water wheel on the Fox river in Wisconsin, in 1882 Hydropower is location specific Reinforced concrete and heavy earth moving equipment has made construction of massive dams possible Equation for approximating potential electricity production from a potential hydroelectric power site Power (in kW) = 5.9 x flow (in m3/sec.) x head (in meters) In 1998, installed capacity of worlds hydropower was 700 GW (installed capacity of small hydropower was just 19.5 MW) Power generated was 2600 TWh Hydropower contributed 19% of the worlds electricity (in 66 countries the contribution was >50% (60% in Canada) and in 24 countries it was >94%), and accounts for 6% of energy supply In 1997, Asia had 100 GW of installed capacity and India had 10 GW under construction and construction of further 28 GW has been planned

Hydro-power Potential (at the end of 1996)

Gross theoretical capacity (in TWh/yr.) Africa >3601 Technically exploitable capacity (in TWh/yr.) >1915

North America
Asia Europe

>6900
>15561 4964

1678
2895 4702 2710

South America >7396

Middle East
Oceania Total World India

>272
593 >39287 (40,000) 2638

152
>232 >14284 (9000 is economically feasible)* 294

Economic feasibility depends on technology and competitiveness of alternative electricity options India has 84.044 GW technically exploitable capacity and at 40% annual load factor it can produce 294 TWh power per year

Hydro-electric power generation scenario (contd..)

Future growth is mainly expected in the developing countries, followed by in the least developed countries (little growth is expected in the OECD countries) Hydropower potential of India (in TWh/year) Region installed power small hydro capacity potential capacity Northern 53.4 225 3.18 Western 8.93 31.4 0.661 Southern 16,45 61.8 0.801 Eastern 10.97 42.5 0.53 North-eastern 58.96 239.3 1.61 Total 148.7 600 6.8 Largest hydropower unit has been of 10 GW capacity Opposition from the environmentalists and people living on the land to be flooded are opposing development of hydro-electric power In 1983 world energy conference predicted 29-34% increase in hydropower production during 1976-2000 48-68% increase in production by 2020

Hydro Generation (all schemes), 1996: the Leading Countries

>150 countries (42 in Africa, 38 in Europe, 31 in Asia, 18 in North & Central America, 14 in South America, 9 in oceania and 6 in Middle East) generate hydroelectric power 18% of the technically feasible and 28% of the economically feasible potential is exploited (65% in Europe, 61% in North America, 40% in Oceania, 20% in Asia, 19% in Russian Federation, 19% in South America and 7% in Africa) Supplies >50% of the total electricity generated in 63 countries, >90% in 23 countries and in 10 countries electricity is exclusively from hydro (Norway, Bhutan, Paragway, etc.)

Hydro-power Capacity at the end of 1996

GW capacity in operation Africa North America South America Asia Europe Middle East Oceania Total World 21.09 154.05 98.99 152.78 209.69 4.06 12.94 653.59 (700) Power generated (in TWh) during 1996 59.28 743.19 470.99 542.24 646.88 12.48 42.41 2517.48 (2600)

19% of the worlds electricity is from hydro In India 10 GW capacity is under construction And further 28 GW capacity is planned In 1996 India has 21.3 GW of installed capacity and it produced 69 TWh electricity (amounts to 25% of the total electrcity generated)

Impacts of Hydroelectric Projects

Impacts on land, land use patterns and landscape
Flooding of forest and agricultural lands Deforestation and replacement of forests by agriculture Disruption to land during construction phase Transformation of a river into a multi level water fall Loss of farm land (specially flood plains)

Impacts on water quality and water regime

Influence on the water quality parameters pH, DO, nutrients and trace metal concentrations Anoxic and low pH subsurface waters in the reservoir Leaching of toxic chemicals and mercury pollution and food chain contamination Temperature stratification deeper water being colder than surface water during summer and warmer during winter Unnatural fluctuations in reservoir water levels Altered tail water environment Reduced water flow in the down stream river causing drought and scarcity of fresh water Altered quality of water (pH, Temperature and Dissolved oxygen)

Impacts of Hydroelectric Projects (contd..)

Erosion and siltation
Deforestation and changed land use patterns induced soil erosion in the catchment area Siltation of the reservoir and reducing its effective water storage capacity and impacting erosion of turbine blades Silt deprival of the flood plains and impacting their fertility Silt deprival and the associated beach disappearance and intensifying localized sea level rise

Impacts on climate
Decay of submerged vegetation and release of CH4 and CO2 Producing green house gases (some reservoirs produce more green house gases than fossil fuel based power plants)

Impacts on ecosystems and biota (flora and fauna)

Threat to (rare) ecosystems (lakes, wetlands and forests) through flooding, deforestation and destruction, impacting biodiversity and productivity Replacement of river habitats by lake habitats Restricted fish migration & hindered water borne seed dispersal Food chain contamination (mercury like heavy metals) Fragmentation of forest habitats by creation of corridors for power transmission lines

Impacts of Hydroelectric Projects (contd..)

Displacement and resettlements
Loss of homelands for the native people Evacuation & resettlement of people Abandoning traditional occupations (hunting, collecting minor forest produce, and shifting cultivation) Modern life styles and consumption patterns Cross cultural transplant of life styles and consumption patterns Increased settlements and encroachments

Other impacts
Reservoir induced seismic activity (vaiont dam in Italian alps and mount TOC (350 million m3 material sliding into reservoir creating 110 m high water wave and killing 2600 people) Water in the reservoir influences the territory adjacent to it and alter local climate, soils and vegetation

Benefits of Hydro-electric Power

Reliable, proven and mature technology and accessible to all Clean renewable resource and widely distributed Have relatively low operation and maintenance cost but has higher expenditure in the early years) 0.6 cents/kWh (for nuclear and coal powered plants it is 2.2 and 2.1 cents per kWh) These plants are simple to operate and have long service life Fast on/off line and the environmental impacts are very small Efficiency levels are high (80-90%, and 92% in Canada) and maintenance shut is limited (16 days per year in Canada, but for Idukki project 6 weeks/year) Supreme source for peaking purpose (but causes water level fluctuations in rivers and ave undesirable environmental consequences and social effects) used for ensuring adequate water supplies, providing irrigation, and for recreation (fishing, boating, water skiing and swimming) and reservoirs are expanded habitats for fish and wild life A recent life cycle analysis has indicated, development of 50% of the economically feasible potential can reduce GHS emissions by 13% (1990 as base year) and reduce SO2 emission

Solutions and Mitigation Measures

Proper siting, design and operation of the power plants Ensuring that the energy generated per oustee and per hectare land flooded is maximized Balanced achievement of water supply, power generation, flood control, and fish and wild life and recreation functions of multipurpose projects Operation nearer to the maximum efficiency and constant rate Using additional power for hydrogen production or for pumping water into the pumped storage reservoir during lean demand Protecting interests of the natives and leaving enough water in the river for traditional religious bathing purposes Catchments area treatment and protecting ecological and other instream functions (to check erosion and to conserve biodiversity) Afforestation of the catchments Preventing deforestation in the catchments Implementation of compensatory forestry programs Setting up wild life refuges and creation of fish ladders Ensuring minimum water flow in rivers (use of only flood water) Providing intake screens Standardized turbine production; computerized control systems and improved turbines can lower the cost