Chapter 12

The Cell Cycle

PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition

Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Overview: The Key Roles of Cell Division

The ability of organisms to reproduce best distinguishes living things from non-living matter

The continuity of life is based upon the reproduction of cells, or cell division
Cell division is integral part of cell cycle

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Types of cell division

Prokaryotes Binary fission

Eukaryotes
Mitosis: Growth, development & repair Asexual reproduction (yields genetically identical cells) Occurs in somatic (body) cells

Meiosis: Sexual reproduction (yields genetically different cells with half the # of chromosomes) Occurs in specific reproductive cells Yields gametes (e.g., eggs & sperm) or spores

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Eukaryotic cell division consists of: Mitosis, the division of the nucleus Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Concept 12.1: Mitotic cell division results in genetically identical daughter cells
Cells duplicate their genetic material before they divide, ensuring that each daughter cell receives an exact copy of the genetic material, DNA A dividing cell duplicates its DNA, allocates the two copies to opposite ends of the cell, and only then splits into daughter cells

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Cellular Organization of the Genetic Material

A cells endowment of DNA (its genetic information) is called its genome

DNA molecules* in a cell are packaged into chromosomes

*Prokaryotescircular DNA Eukaryoteslinear DNA

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in each cell nucleus

Somatic (non-reproductive) cells (normally) have two sets of chromosomes

Gametes (reproductive cells: sperm and eggs) (and spores) have half as many chromosomes as somatic cells Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of chromatin, a complex of DNA and protein that condenses during cell division
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

DNA associates with special proteins to form more stable structure called chromosomes (different proteins in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, so chromosomes built different) Chromosomes are found inside nucleus in eukaryotes

Human - 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs (1 set of 23 from egg, 1 set of 23 from sperm)

Each chromosome contains many genes Gene is a segment of DNA that is responsible for controlling a trait (e.g., coding for a specific protein)
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Human female karyotype

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Human male karyotype

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Phases of the Cell Cycle

The cell cycle consists of Mitotic (M) phase (mitosis and cytokinesis) Interphase (cell growth and copying of chromosomes in preparation for cell division)

Interphase (about 90% of the cell cycle) can be divided into subphases:
G1 phase (first gap) S phase (synthesis) G2 phase (second gap)
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 12-5

INTERPHASE

G1

S (DNA synthesis)

G2

Distribution of Chromosomes During Cell Division

In preparation for cell division, DNA is replicated and the chromosomes condense

Each duplicated chromosome has two sister chromatids, which separate during cell division
The centromere is the narrow waist of the duplicated chromosome, where the two chromatids are most closely attached

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 12-4
0.5 m

Chromosome duplication (including DNA synthesis) Centromere

Sister chromatids

Separation of sister chromatids

Centromeres

Sister chromatids

 Mitosis is conventionally divided into five phases: Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase

Anaphase
Telophase

Cytokinesis is well underway by late telophase

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

1. Prophase
Chromatin condenses, this causes the chromosomes to begin to become visible Centrosomes separate, moving to opposite ends of the nucleus

The centrosomes start to form a framework used to separate the two sister chromatids called the mitotic spindle, that is made of microtubules
Nucleolus disappears

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

2. Prometaphase

- Nuclear envelope fragments

- Chromosomes become more condensed - A kinetochore is formed at the centromere, the point where the sister chromatids are attached - Microtubules attach at the kinetochores

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

3. Metaphase - Chromosomes align on an axis called the metaphase plate - Note: the spindle consists of microtubules, one attached to each chromosome

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

4. Anaphase - Each centromere splits making two chromatids free - Each chromatid moves toward a pole - Cell begins to elongate, caused by microtubules not associated with the kinetochore

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

5. Telophase
Formation of nuclear membrane and nucleolus

Short and thick chromosomes begin to elongate to form long and thin chromatin
Formation of the cleavage furrow - a shallow groove in the cell near the old metaphase plate Cytokinesis = division of the cytoplasm

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Mitosis in an onion root

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Mitotic Spindle: A Closer Look

The mitotic spindle is an apparatus of microtubules that controls chromosome movement during mitosis Assembly of spindle microtubules begins in the centrosome, the microtubule organizing center The centrosome replicates, forming two centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of the cell, as spindle microtubules grow out from them An aster (a radial array of short microtubules) extends from each centrosome
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 The spindle includes the centrosomes, the spindle microtubules, and the asters

Some spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of chromosomes and move the chromosomes to the metaphase plate

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 12-7

Aster Microtubules Chromosomes Sister chromatids Centrosome Metaphase plate Kinetochores

Overlapping nonkinetochore microtubules Centrosome 1 m

Kinetochore microtubules 0.5 m

 In anaphase, sister chromatids separate and move along the kinetochore microtubules toward opposite ends of the cell The microtubules shorten by depolymerizing at their kinetochore ends

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 12-8b

Chromosome movement

Kinetochore

Microtubule

Motor protein

Tubulin subunits

Chromosome

 Nonkinetochore microtubules from opposite poles overlap and push against each other, elongating the cell In telophase, genetically identical daughter nuclei form at opposite ends of the cell

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Cytokinesis: A Closer Look

In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a process known as cleavage, forming a cleavage furrow

In plant cells, a cell plate forms during cytokinesis

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 12-9a

100 m

Cleavage furrow

Contractile ring of microfilaments

Daughter cells

Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM)

Mitosis

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 12-9b

Vesicles forming cell plate

Wall of parent cell

1 m New cell wall

Cell plate

Daughter cells

Cell plate formation in a plant cell (TEM)

LE 12-10

Nucleus Nucleolus

Chromatin condensing

Chromosomes

Cell plate

10 m

Prophase. The chromatin is condensing. The nucleolus is beginning to disappear. Although not yet visible in the micrograph, the mitotic spindle is starting to form.

Prometaphase. We now see discrete chromosomes; each consists of two identical sister chromatids. Later in prometaphase, the nuclear envelope will fragment.

Metaphase. The spindle is complete, and the chromosomes, attached to microtubules at their kinetochores, are all at the metaphase plate.

Anaphase. The chromatids of each chromosome have separated, and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the ends of the cell as their kinetochore microtubules shorten.

Telophase. Daughter nuclei are forming. Meanwhile, cytokinesis has started: The cell plate, which will divide the cytoplasm in two, is growing toward the perimeter of the parent cell.

Binary Fission
Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) reproduce by a type of cell division called binary fission

In binary fission, the chromosome replicates (beginning at the origin of replication), and the two daughter chromosomes actively move apart

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 12-11_1

Origin of replication E. coli cell Chromosome replication begins. Soon thereafter, one copy of the origin moves rapidly toward the other end of the cell. Two copies of origin

Cell wall Plasma membrane

Bacterial chromosome

LE 12-11_2

Origin of replication E. coli cell Chromosome replication begins. Soon thereafter, one copy of the origin moves rapidly toward the other end of the cell. Two copies of origin

Cell wall

Plasma membrane Bacterial chromosome

Replication continues. One copy of the origin is now at each end of the cell.

Origin

Origin

LE 12-11_3
Origin of replication E. coli cell Chromosome replication begins. Soon thereafter, one copy of the origin moves rapidly toward the other end of the cell. Two copies of origin Cell wall Plasma membrane Bacterial chromosome

Replication continues. One copy of the origin is now at each end of the cell.

Origin

Origin

Replication finishes. The plasma membrane grows inward, and new cell wall is deposited.

Two daughter cells result.

The Evolution of Mitosis

Since prokaryotes evolved before eukaryotes, mitosis probably evolved from binary fission Certain protists exhibit types of cell division that seem intermediate between binary fission and mitosis

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 12-12
Bacterial chromosome Prokaryotes Chromosomes Microtubules

Intact nuclear envelope Dinoflagellates Kinetochore microtubules Intact nuclear envelope Diatoms Kinetochore microtubules Centrosome Fragments of nuclear envelope Most eukaryotes

Concept 12.3: The cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system

The frequency of cell division varies with the type of cell and with cell happiness

These cell cycle differences result from regulation at the molecular level
The cell cycle appears to be driven by specific chemical signals present in the cytoplasm The levels of these chemical signals are influenced by biotic & abiotic factors

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Cell Cycle Control System

The sequential events of the cell cycle are directed by a distinct cell cycle control system, which is similar to a clock The clock has specific checkpoints where the cell cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is received For many cells, the G1 checkpoint seems to be the most important one

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 12-14

G1 checkpoint

G1

Control system

G2

M checkpoint G2 checkpoint

LE 12-15

G0
G1 checkpoint

G1 If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G1 checkpoint, the cell continues on in the cell cycle.

G1

If a cell does not receive a go-ahead signal at the G1 checkpoint, the cell exits the cell cycle and goes into G0, a nondividing state.

LE 12-16b

Cdk
Degraded cyclin Cyclin is degraded MPF

G2 Cdk checkpoint Cyclin

Molecular mechanisms that help regulate the cell cycle

Stop and Go Signs: Internal and External Signals at the Checkpoints An example of an internal signal is that kinetochores not attached to spindle microtubules send a molecular signal that delays anaphase Some external signals are growth factors, proteins released by certain cells that stimulate other cells to divide

For example, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) stimulates the division of human fibroblast cells in culture
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 12-17
Scalpels

Petri plate

Without PDGF

With PDGF

Without PDGF

With PDGF

10 mm

 Another example of external signals is densitydependent inhibition, in which crowded cells stop dividing Most animal cells also exhibit anchorage dependence, in which they must be attached to a substratum in order to divide

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 12-18a

Cells anchor to dish surface and divide (anchorage dependence).

When cells have formed a complete single layer, they stop dividing (density-dependent inhibition).

If some cells are scraped away, the remaining cells divide to fill the gap and then stop (density-dependent inhibition).

Normal mammalian cells

25 m

 Cancer cells exhibit neither density-dependent inhibition nor anchorage dependence

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 12-18b

Cancer cells do not exhibit anchorage dependence or density-dependent inhibition.

25 m Cancer cells

Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in Cancer Cells

Cancer cells do not respond normally to the bodys control mechanisms

Cancer cells form tumors, masses of abnormal cells within otherwise normal tissue
If abnormal cells remain at the original site, the lump is called a benign tumor Malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues and can metastasize, exporting cancer cells to other parts of the body, where they may form secondary tumors
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings