MoLlvaLlon

1heorles racLlces
MoLlvaLlon ls Lhe lnLenslLy dlrecLlon and perslsLence of efforL a
person shows ln reachlng a goal
lnLenslLy Pow hard a person Lrles
ulrecLlon Where efforL ls channeled
erslsLence Pow long efforL ls malnLalned
MoLlvaLlon ls Lhe w||| to work 1hls comes from Lhe en[oymenL of
Lhe work lLself and/or
from Lhe deslre Lo achleve cerLaln goals
eg earn more money or achleve promoLlon
Managers spend conslderable Llme worklng ouL how besL Lo
moLlvaLe Lhelr workers and Lhere are a number of dlfferenL
oplnlons abouL how Lhls can be besL done
A wellmoLlvaLed workforce can provlde many advanLages for an
organlzaLlon
ttr product|v|ty (amounL produced per employee) 1hls
can lead Lo lower unlL cosLs of producLlon and so enable a
flrm Lo sell lLs producL aL a lower prlce
owr |v|s of abst|sm as Lhe employees are conLenL
wlLh Lhelr worklng llves
owr |v|s of staff turovr (Lhe number of employees
leavlng Lhe buslness) 1hls can lead Lo lower Lralnlng and
recrulLmenL cosLs
mprovd |dustr|a| r|at|os wlLh Lrade unlons
ConLenLed workers glve Lhe flrm a ood rputat|o as an
employer so maklng lL easler Lo recrulL Lhe besL workers
MoLlvaLed employees are llkely Lo |mprov product qua||ty or
Lhe cusLomer servlce assoclaLed wlLh a producL
A well moLlvaLed workforce can brlng
followlng beneflLs
MoLlvaLors
lnLrlnslc MoLlvaLors
A person's lnLernal deslre Lo do someLhlng due Lo
such Lhlngs as lnLeresL challenge and personal
saLlsfacLlon
LxLrlnslc MoLlvaLors
MoLlvaLlon LhaL comes from ouLslde Lhe person
and lncludes such Lhlngs as pay bonuses and
oLher Langlble rewards
@ay|or
rederlck Wlnslow 1aylor (1836 1917) puL forward Lhe
ldea LhaL workers are moLlvaLed malnly by pay Pls 1heory
of SclenLlflc ManagemenL argued Lhe followlng
Workers do noL naLurally en[oy work and so need close
supervlslon and conLrol
1herefore managers should break down producLlon lnLo a
serles of small Lasks
Workers should Lhen be glven approprlaLe Lralnlng and
Lools so Lhey can work as efflclenLly as posslble on one seL
Lask
Workers are Lhen pald accordlng Lo Lhe number of lLems
Lhey produce ln a seL perlod of Llme pleceraLe pay
As a resulL workers are encouraged Lo work hard and
maxlmlze Lhelr producLlvlLy
1aylor's meLhods were wldely adopLed as buslnesses saw
Lhe beneflLs of lncreased producLlvlLy levels and lower unlL
cosLs
1he mosL noLably advocaLe was Penry ord who used Lhem
Lo deslgn Lhe flrsL ever producLlon llne maklng ord cars
1hls was Lhe sLarL of Lhe era of mass producLlon
1aylor's approach has close llnks wlLh Lhe concepL of an
auLocraLlc managemenL sLyle (managers Lake all Lhe
declslons and slmply glve orders Lo Lhose below Lhem) and
Macgregor's 1heory x approach Lo workers (workers are
vlewed as lazy and wlsh Lo avold responslblllLy)
Powever workers soon came Lo dlsllke 1aylor's approach as
Lhey were only glven borlng repeLlLlve Lasks Lo carry ouL
and were belng LreaLed llLLle beLLer Lhan human machlnes
lrms could also afford Lo lay off workers as producLlvlLy
levels lncreased 1hls led Lo an lncrease ln sLrlkes and oLher
forms of lndusLrlal acLlon by dlssaLlsfled workers
,ayo
LlLon Mayo (1880 1949) belleved LhaL workers are noL [usL
concerned wlLh money buL could be beLLer moLlvaLed by havlng
Lhelr soclal needs meL whlle aL work (someLhlng LhaL 1aylor
lgnored)
Pe lnLroduced Lhe Puman 8elaLlon School of LhoughL whlch
focused on managers Laklng more of an lnLeresL ln Lhe workers
LreaLlng Lhem as people who have worLhwhlle oplnlons and
reallzlng LhaL workers en[oy lnLeracLlng LogeLher
Mayo conducLed a serles of experlmenLs aL Lhe PawLhorne facLory
of Lhe WesLern LlecLrlc Company ln Chlcago
Pe lsolaLed Lwo groups of women workers and sLudled Lhe effecL on
Lhelr producLlvlLy levels of changlng facLors such as llghLlng and
worklng condlLlons
Pe expecLed Lo see producLlvlLy levels decllne as llghLlng or oLher
condlLlons became progresslvely worse
WhaL he acLually dlscovered surprlsed hlm whaLever Lhe change ln
llghLlng or worklng condlLlons Lhe producLlvlLy levels of Lhe
workers lmproved or remalned Lhe same
rom Lhls Mayo concluded LhaL workers are besL moLlvaLed by
ttr commu|cat|o beLween managers and workers
( PawLhorne workers were consulLed over Lhe experlmenLs
and also had Lhe opporLunlLy Lo glve feedback)
ratr maar |vo|vmt ln employees worklng llves (
PawLhorne workers responded Lo Lhe lncreased level of
aLLenLlon Lhey were recelvlng)
Jork| | roups or tams ( PawLhorne workers dld noL
prevlously regularly work ln Leams)
ln pracLlce Lherefore buslnesses should reorganlze
producLlon Lo encourage greaLer use of Leam worklng and
lnLroduce personnel deparLmenLs Lo encourage greaLer
manager lnvolvemenL ln looklng afLer employees' lnLeresLs
Pls Lheory mosL closely flLs ln wlLh a paLernallsLlc sLyle of
managemenL
1ypes of moLlvaLlon Lheorles
ConLenL Lheorles
need /drlves of people how Lhey are prlorlLlzed
1ypes of lncenLlves LhaL people sLrlve Lo aLLaln lnorder Lo be
saLlsfled perform well
Puman needs and how people wlLh dlfferenL needs may respond Lo
dlfferenL work slLuaLlons
rocess Lheorles
Pow people glve meanlng Lo rewards and make declslons on
varlous workrelaLed behavlors
8elnforcemenL Lheory
Pow people's behavlor ls lnfluenced by envlronmenLal
consequences
1ypes of conLenL Lheorles
Maslow's hlerarchy of needs Lheory
McCregor's 1heory x and 1heory ?
Alderfer's L8C 1heory
PerLzberg 1wofacLor Lheory
needs
unfulfllled physlologlcal and psychologlcal deslres of an
lndlvldual
Lxplaln workplace behavlor and aLLlLudes
CreaLe Lenslons LhaL lnfluence aLLlLudes and behavlor
Cood managers and leaders faclllLaLe employee need
saLlsfacLlon

urlves or MoLlves are seL up Lo allevlaLe needs

lncenLlve wlll allevlaLe Lhe need and reduce Lhe drlve
,as|ow
Abraham Maslow (1908 1970) along wlLh rederlck Perzberg
(1923) lnLroduced Lhe neoPuman 8elaLlons School ln Lhe 1930's
whlch focused on Lhe psychologlcal needs of employees Maslow
puL forward a Lheory LhaL Lhere are flve levels of human needs
whlch employees need Lo have fulfllled aL work
All of Lhe needs are sLrucLured lnLo a hlerarchy and only once a
lower level of need has been (fully )meL a worker would be
moLlvaLed by Lhe opporLunlLy of havlng Lhe nexL need up ln Lhe
hlerarchy saLlsfled
or example a person who ls dylng of hunger wlll be moLlvaLed Lo
achleve a baslc wage ln order Lo buy food before worrylng abouL
havlng a secure [ob conLracL or Lhe respecL of oLhers
A buslness should Lherefore offer dlfferenL lncenLlves Lo workers ln
order Lo help Lhem fulflll each need ln Lurn and progress up Lhe
hlerarchy
Managers should also recognlze LhaL workers are noL all moLlvaLed
ln Lhe same way and do noL all move up Lhe hlerarchy aL Lhe same
pace 1hey may Lherefore have Lo offer a sllghLly dlfferenL seL of
lncenLlves from worker Lo worker
12
MasIow's MasIow's
Hierarchy Hierarchy
of Needs of Needs
SeIf
Esteem
SociaI
Safety
PhysioIogicaI
Maslow's Plerarchy of needs
hyslologlcal needs food drlnk shelLer oLher physlcal
requlremenLs
SafeLy / SecurlLy needs [ob securlLy llfe medlcal lnsurances
proLecLlon from physlcal emoLlonal harm
Soclal needs AffecLlon belonglngness afflllaLlon
accepLance frlendshlp
LsLeem needs lncludes lnLernal esLeem facLors such as self
respecL auLonomy and achlevemenL and exLernal esLeem
facLors such as sLaLus recognlLlon and aLLenLlon
Self AcLuallzaLlon needs 1he drlve Lo become whaL one ls
capable of becomlng lncludes growLh achlevlng one's
poLenLlal and selffulflllmenL
@ O
people dlsllke work
people need Lo be conLrolled LhreaLened
people avold responslblllLy value securlLy
@
work ls as naLural as play
people respond Lo poslLlve lncenLlves
people en[oy responslblllLy llke Lo solve problems
@ory k
Assumes LhaL employees dlsllke work lack amblLlon avold
responslblllLy and musL be dlrecLed and coerced Lo perform
@ory
Assumes LhaL employees llke work seek responslblllLy are
capable of maklng declslons and exerclse selfdlrecLlon and self
conLrol when commlLLed Lo a goal
McCregor's 1heorles k and
@ory k sLaLes
eople don'L llke Lo work and wlll avold lL lf Lhey can
eople musL be conLrolled dlrecLed or LhreaLened Lo geL
Lhem Lo make an efforL
Workers wanL Lo avold responslblllLy buL wanL [ob securlLy
@ory sLaLes
Work ls as naLural as play or resL
eople wanL Lo be selfdlrecLed and wlll Lry Lo accompllsh
goals ln whlch Lhey belleve
oslLlve lncenLlves wlll moLlvaLe workers
eople seek responslblllLy and are wllllng Lo help solve
problems
McCregor belleved @ory assumpLlons descrlbe mosL
employees
MoLlvaLlonal 1heorles x ?
hyslologlcal
SafeLy SecurlLy
Soclal
LsLeem
SA
1heory ? a seL of
assumpLlons of how Lo
manage lndlvlduals
moLlvaLed by hlgher
order needs
1heory x a seL of
assumpLlons of how Lo
manage lndlvlduals
moLlvaLed by lower
order needs
17
Alderfers L8C 1heory
An exLenslon of Maslows Lheory LhaL proposes
Lhe exlsLence of Lhree needs as opposed Lo flve
LxlsLence needs ueslres for physlologlcal and
maLerlal wellbelng
8elaLlonshlp needs ueslres for saLlsfylng
lnLerpersonal relaLlonshlps
CrowLh needs ueslres for conLlnued
psychologlcal growLh and developmenL
18
Alderfers L8C 1heory
L8C 1heory
uoes noL assume LhaL lowerlevel needs musL be
saLlsfled before hlgherlevel needs become
acLlvaLed and
1hls Lheory lncludes a unlque ftosttotloo
teqtessloo prlnclple whereby an already saLlsfled
lowerlevel need becomes reacLlvaLed when a
hlgherlevel need ls frusLraLed
McClelland's need 1heory
SLaLes LhaL Lhe acqulred needs achlevemenL power
and afflllaLlon are ma[or moLlves aL work
are acqulred over Llme as a resulL of experlences
need for achlevemenL
1he drlve Lo excel Lo achleve ln relaLlon Lo a seL of
sLandards Lo sLrlve Lo succeed
need for power
1he need Lo make oLhers behave ln a way LhaL Lhey would
noL have behaved oLherwlse
need for afflllaLlon
1he deslre for frlendly and close lnLerpersonal relaLlonshlps
20
McClelland`s Acquired Needs Theory
-d for ac|vmt
1he deslre Lo do someLhlng beLLer or more
efflclenLly Lo solve problems or Lo masLer
complex Lasks
Plgh need for achlevemenL people
refer lndlvldual responslblllLles
refer challenglng goals
refer performance feedback
21
McClelland`s Acquired Needs Theory
-d for aff|||at|o
1he deslre Lo esLabllsh and malnLaln frlendly and
warm relaLlons wlLh oLhers
Plgh need for afflllaLlon people
Are drawn Lo lnLerpersonal relaLlonshlps
Seek opporLunlLles for communlcaLlon
22
McClelland`s Acquired Needs Theory
-d for powr
1he deslre Lo conLrol oLhers Lo lnfluence Lhelr
behavlor or Lo be responslble for oLhers
Plgh need for power people
Seek lnfluence over oLhers
Llke aLLenLlon
Llke recognlLlon
rzbr
rederlck Perzberg (1923) had close llnks wlLh Maslow and
belleved ln a LwofacLor Lheory of moLlvaLlon Pe argued LhaL Lhere
were cerLaln facLors LhaL a buslness could lnLroduce LhaL would
dlrecLly moLlvaLe employees Lo work harder (,ot|vators)
Powever Lhere were also facLors LhaL would demoLlvaLe / dlsaLlsfly
an employee lf noL presenL buL would noL ln Lhemselves acLually
moLlvaLe employees Lo work harder (y|factors)
MoLlvaLors are more concerned wlLh Lhe acLual [ob lLself or
lnsLance how lnLeresLlng Lhe work ls and how much opporLunlLy lL
glves for exLra responslblllLy recognlLlon and promoLlon
Pyglene facLors are facLors whlch 'surround Lhe [ob' raLher Lhan Lhe
[ob lLself or example a worker wlll only Lurn up Lo work lf a
buslness has provlded a reasonable level of pay and safe worklng
condlLlons buL Lhese facLors wlll noL make hlm work harder aL hls
[ob once he ls Lhere
lmporLanLly Perzberg vlewed pay as a hyglene facLor whlch ls ln
dlrecL conLrasL Lo 1aylor who vlewed pay and pleceraLe ln
parLlcular
ConLrasLlng vlews of SaLlsfacLlon and
ulssaLlsfacLlon
Satisfaction Dissatisfaction
Traditional view
Satisfaction No satisfaction
Herzberg's view
No dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction
Hygiene Factors
Motivators
Dissatisfaction
and
demotivation
Not dissatisfied
but
not motivated
Positive
satisfaction
and motivation
Hygiene Factors
Company policies
Quality of supervision
Relations with others
Personal life
Rate of pay
Job security
Working conditions
MotivationaI Factors
Achievement
Career advancement
Personal growth
Job interest
Recognition
Responsibility
Perzberg's 1woacLor 1heory
Pyglene facLors avold
[ob dlssaLlsfacLlon
- Company pollcy
admlnlsLraLlon
- Supervlslon
- lnLerpersonal relaLlons
- Worklng condlLlons
- Salary
- SLaLus
- SecurlLy
- AchlevemenL
- AchlevemenL recognlLlon
- Work lLself
- 8esponslblllLy
- AdvancemenL
- CrowLh
- Salary?
MoLlvaLlon facLors
lncrease [ob saLlsfacLlon
Perzberg belleved LhaL buslnesses should moLlvaLe employees by
adopLlng a democraLlc approach Lo managemenL and by lmprovlng
Lhe naLure and conLenL of Lhe acLual [ob Lhrough cerLaln meLhods
Some of Lhe meLhods managers could use Lo achleve Lhls are
ob |armt workers belng glven a greaLer varleLy of Lasks Lo
perform (noL necessarlly more challenglng) whlch should make Lhe
work more lnLeresLlng
ob r|cmt lnvolves workers belng glven a wlder range of
more complex lnLeresLlng and challenglng Lasks surroundlng a
compleLe unlL of work 1hls should glve a greaLer sense of
achlevemenL
mpowrmt means delegaLlng more power Lo employees Lo
make Lhelr own declslons over areas of Lhelr worklng llfe
needs 1heorles
Maslow Herzberg
Hygiene
Motivators
Factors
Soclal
SafeLy
hyslologlcal
SelfAcLuallsaLlon
LsLeem
8elaLlonshlp of varlous needs 1heorles
Hygiene
Factors
Need for Achievement
Need for Power
Need for Affiliation
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Affiliation
Security
Physiological
Motivators
Relatedness
Existence
Growth
Maslow Alderfer Herzberg
McClelland
Summary Plerarchy of needs
Maslow Argues LhaL lowerorder needs musL be saLlsfled
before one progresses Lo hlgherorder needs
Perzberg Pyglene facLors musL be meL lf person ls noL Lo
be dlssaLlsfled 1hey wlll noL lead Lo saLlsfacLlon however
MoLlvaLors lead Lo saLlsfacLlon
Alderfer More Lhan one need can be lmporLanL aL Lhe
same Llme lf a hlgherorder need ls noL belng meL Lhe
deslre Lo saLlsfy a lowerlevel need lncreases
McClelland eople vary ln Lhe Lypes of needs Lhey have
1helr moLlvaLlon and how well Lhey perform ln a work
slLuaLlon are relaLed Lo wheLher Lhey have a need for
achlevemenL afflllaLlon or power
Summary lmpacL of 1heory
Maslow Ln[oys wlde recognlLlon among pracLlslng
managers MosL managers are famlllar wlLh lL
Perzberg 1he popularlLy of glvlng workers greaLer
responslblllLy for plannlng and conLrolllng Lhelr work can
be aLLrlbuLed Lo hls flndlngs Shows LhaL more Lhan one
need may operaLe aL Lhe same Llme
Alderfer Seen as a more valld verslon of Lhe needs
hlerarchy 1ells us LhaL achlevers wlll be moLlvaLed by [obs
LhaL offer personal responslblllLy feedback and moderaLe
rlsks
McClelland 1ells us LhaL hlgh need achlevers do noL
necessarlly make good managers slnce hlgh achlevers are
more lnLeresLed ln how Lhey do personally
Summary SupporL and CrlLlclsm of
1heory
Maslow 8esearch does noL generally valldaLe Lhe Lheory
ln parLlcular Lhere ls llLLle supporL for Lhe hlerarchlcal
naLure of needs CrlLlclzed for how daLa were collecLed and
lnLerpreLed
Perzberg noL really a Lheory of moLlvaLlon Assumes a llnk
beLween saLlsfacLlon and producLlvlLy LhaL was noL
measured or demonsLraLed
Alderfer lgnores slLuaLlonal varlables
McClelland Mlxed emplrlcal supporL buL Lheory ls
conslsLenL wlLh our knowledge of lndlvldual dlfferences
among people Cood emplrlcal supporL parLlcularly on
needs achlevemenL
rocess 1heorles of MoLlvaLlon
Look aL Lhe acLual process of moLlvaLlon
LxpecLancy Lheory
CoalseLLlng Lheory
LxpecLancy 1heory
1he Lheory LhaL lndlvlduals acL dependlng on wheLher
Lhelr efforL wlll lead Lo good performance
wheLher good performance wlll be followed by a glven
ouLcome
and wheLher LhaL ouLcome ls aLLracLlve Lo Lhem
LxpecLancy 8elaLlonshlps
1he Lheory focuses on Lhree relaLlonshlps
LfforLerformance 8elaLlonshlp
1he percelved probablllLy LhaL exerLlng a glven amounL of efforL
wlll lead Lo performance
erformance8eward 8elaLlonshlp
1he degree Lo whlch Lhe lndlvldual belleves LhaL performlng aL a
parLlcular level wlll lead Lo a deslred ouLcome
8ewardsersonal Coals 8elaLlonshlp
1he degree Lo whlch organlzaLlonal rewards saLlsfy an lndlvldual's
personal goals or needs and are aLLracLlve Lo Lhe lndlvldual
LxpecLancy Model of MoLlvaLlon
9rformac ward
LfforL
ffort
ercelved efforL
performance
probablllLy
ercelved
value of reward
ercelved
performance
reward probablllLy
#f wotk botJ
wlll qet tbe job
Jooe?
#Jbot tewotJs
wlll qet wbeo
tbe job ls well
Jooe?
#Jbot tewotJs
Jo voloe?
MoLlvaLlonal roblems
Ia|c value or lmporLance placed on a parLlcular reward
pctacy bellef LhaL efforL leads Lo performance
strumta||ty bellef LhaL performance ls relaLed Lo
rewards
ellef LhaL efforL wlll noL resulL ln performance
ellef LhaL performance wlll noL resulL ln rewards
1he value a person places on or Lhe preference a
person has for cerLaln rewards
renLlce Pall 2001 ChapLer 6 37
LxpecLancy 1heory
(vroom)
Rewards-PersonaI goaIs reIationship = VaIence
1 Effort-Performance reIationship = Expectancy
2 Performance-Rewards reIationship = InstrumentaIity
IndividuaI
Effort
IndividuaI
Performance
PersonaI
GoaIs
OrganisationaI
Rewards
1
2

LxpecLancy Lheory
MoLlvaLlon (M) expecLancy (L) lnsLrumenLallLy (l)
and valence (v) are relaLed Lo one anoLher ln a
mulLlpllcaLlve fashlon
M L x l x v
lf elLher L l or v ls low moLlvaLlon wlll be
low
Pow LxpecLancy 1heory Works
Expectancy
Effort - Performance Link
E=0
No matter how much effort
you put in, probabIy not possibIe
to memorise the text in 24 hours
InstrumentaIity
Performance - Rewards Link
I=0
Your tutor does not Iook
Iike someone who has 1 miIIion
VaIence
Rewards - PersonaI GoaIs Link
V=1
There are a Iot of wonderfuI things
you couId do with 1 miIIion
Your tutor offers you 1 miIIion if you memorise the textbook by tomorrow morning
oncIusion: Though you vaIue the reward, you wiII not be motivated to do this task
SLeps Lo lncreaslng MoLlvaLlon uslng
LxpecLancy 1heory
mproving Expectancy
mprove the ability of the
individual to perform
Make sure employees have skills
for the task
Provide training
Assign reasonable tasks and goals
mproving nstrumentality mproving Valence
ncrease the individual ' s belief that
performance will lead to reward
Observe and recognize performance
Deliver rewards as promised
ndicate to employees how previous
good performance led to greater
rewards
Make sure that the reward is
meaningful to the individual
Ask employees what rewards they
value
Give rewards that are valued
CoalSeLLlng 1heory
1he Lheory LhaL speclflc and dlfflculL goals
lead Lo hlgher performance
Coals Lell an employee whaL needs Lo be done and how
much efforL wlll need Lo be expended
Speclflc goals lncrease performance
ulfflculL goals when accepLed resulL ln hlgher performance
Lhan do easy goals
eedback leads Lo hlgher performance Lhan does
nonfeedback
Speclflc hard goals produce a hlgher level of ouLpuL Lhan
does Lhe generallzed goal of do your besL"
1he speclflclLy of Lhe goal lLself acLs as an lnLernal sLlmulus
Pow uoes Coal SeLLlng MoLlvaLe?
Coals
ulrecL aLLenLlon
8egulaLe efforL
lncrease perslsLence
Lncourage Lhe developmenL of sLraLegles and
acLlon plans
Locke's Model of Coal SeLLlng
Regulating effort
ncreasing persistence
Encouraging the development
of strategies and action plans
Task
performance
Directing attention
Goals
motivate
by . . .
ootce AdapLed from L A Locke and C LaLham A 1beoty of Cool ettloq ooJ 1osk letfotmooce
(Lnglewood Cllffs n! renLlce Pall 1980) 8eprlnLed by permlsslon of Ldwln A Locke
Coals Should e SMA81
or goals Lo be effecLlve Lhey should be
SMA81
Speclflc
Measurable
ALLalnable
8esulLsorlenLed
1lmebound
A goal is a target level oI perIormance
If a goal is. diIIicult
speciIic
And if a person: accepts the goal
Ieels committed to it
gets Ieedback on their progress
Then their performance improves because:
their behaviour is Iocused
they try hard
they keep trying
they develop strategies
1046
CoalSeLLlng 1heory (conL'd)
CharacLerlsLlcs of Coals (conL'd)
Coal speclflclLy
ClarlLy and preclslon of Lhe goal
Coals vary ln Lhelr ablllLy Lo be
sLaLed speclflcally
AccepLance
1he exLenL Lo whlch persons
accepL a goal as Lhelr own
CommlLmenL
1he exLenL Lo whlch an lndlvldual ls
personally lnLeresLed ln reachlng a goal
1he Lxpanded CoalSeLLlng 1heory
of MoLlvaLlon
Source 8eprlnLed by permlsslon of Lhe publlsher from tqoolzotloool uyoomlcs AuLumn/1979 copyrlghL 1979 by Amerlcan
ManagemenL AssoclaLlon new ?ork All rlghLs reserved (hLLp//wwwamaneLorg)
LqulLy 1heory
Maln polnLs
lndlvlduals compare Lhelr [ob lnpuLs and
ouLcomes wlLh Lhose of oLhers and Lhen
respond so as Lo ellmlnaLe any lnequlLles
LqulLy Lheory recognlzes LhaL lndlvlduals are
concerned noL only wlLh Lhe absoluLe amounL
of rewards for Lhelr efforLs buL also wlLh Lhe
relaLlonshlp of Lhls amounL Lo whaL oLhers
recelve
49
1he LqulLy 1heory of MoLlvaLlon
LqulLy 1heory
ased on Lhe relaLlvely slmple premlse LhaL
people ln organlzaLlons wanL Lo be LreaLed falrly
LqulLy
1he bellef LhaL we are belng LreaLed falrly ln
relaLlon Lo oLhers
lnequlLy
1he bellef LhaL we are belng LreaLed unfalrly ln
relaLlon Lo oLhers
30
ormlng LqulLy ercepLlons
eople ln organlzaLlons form
percepLlons of Lhe equlLy of Lhelr
LreaLmenL Lhrough a foursLep
process
Step 1 Step 1
A person A person
evaIuates how evaIuates how
he or she is he or she is
being treated being treated
by the firm by the firm
Step 1 Step 1
A person A person
evaIuates how evaIuates how
he or she is he or she is
being treated being treated
by the firm by the firm
Step 2 Step 2
The person The person
forms a forms a
perception of perception of
how a how a
"comparison "comparison
other" is other" is
being treated being treated
Step 2 Step 2
The person The person
forms a forms a
perception of perception of
how a how a
"comparison "comparison
other" is other" is
being treated being treated
Step Step
The person The person
compares his compares his
or her own or her own
circumstances circumstances
with those of with those of
the comparison the comparison
other other
Step Step
The person The person
compares his compares his
or her own or her own
circumstances circumstances
with those of with those of
the comparison the comparison
other other
Step 4 Step 4
On the strength On the strength
of this feeIing, of this feeIing,
the person may the person may
choose to choose to
pursue one or pursue one or
more more
aIternatives aIternatives
Step 4 Step 4
On the strength On the strength
of this feeIing, of this feeIing,
the person may the person may
choose to choose to
pursue one or pursue one or
more more
aIternatives aIternatives
31
1he LqulLy Comparlson rocess
LqulLy Lheory descrlbes Lhe equlLy comparlson process
ln Lerms of an lnpuLLoouLcome raLlo
Outcomes (seIf) Outcomes (seIf)
Inputs (seIf) Inputs (seIf)
Outcomes (seIf) Outcomes (seIf)
Inputs (seIf) Inputs (seIf)
Outcomes (other) Outcomes (other)
Inputs (other) Inputs (other)
Outcomes (other) Outcomes (other)
Inputs (other) Inputs (other)
compared with compared with
32
|ur 61 sposs to 9rcpt|os of qu|ty ad qu|ty
33
LvaluaLlons and lmpllcaLlons
8esearch flndlngs supporL predlcLlons of equlLy
Lheory for responses Lo lnequlLy
LqulLy Lheory offers managers Lhree messages
Lveryone ln Lhe organlzaLlon needs Lo undersLand Lhe
basls for rewards
eople Lend Lo Lake a mulLlfaceLed vlew of Lhelr rewards
Lhey percelve and experlence a varleLy of rewards some
Langlble and oLhers lnLanglble
eople base Lhelr acLlons on Lhelr percepLlons of reallLy
MoLlvaLors
lnLrlnslc
A person's lnLernal deslre Lo do someLhlng due Lo
such Lhlngs as lnLeresL challenge and personal
saLlsfacLlon
LxLrlnslc
MoLlvaLlon LhaL comes from ouLslde Lhe person
such as pay bonuses and oLher Langlble rewards
our key 8ewards Lo lncrease lnLrlnslc
MoLlvaLlon
1Sense of cholce
2Sense of compeLence
3Sense of meanlngfulness
4Sense of progress
Managers can acL ln ways LhaL wlll bulld
Lhese lnLrlnslc rewards for Lhelr employees
ulldlng locks for lnLrlnslc 8ewards
Delegated authority
Trust in workers
Security (no punishment) for honest mistakes
A clear purpose
nformation
A noncynical climate
Clearly identified passions
An exciting vision
Relevant task purposes
Whole tasks
Knowledge
Positive feedback
Skill recognition
Challenge
High, non-comparative standards
A collaborative climate
Milestones
Celebrations
Access to customers
Measurement of improvement
Leading for Choice
Leading for Competence
Leading for Meaningfulness Leading for Progress
ootce 8eprlnLed wlLh permlsslon of Lhe publlsher rom ottloslc Motlvotloo ot Jotk 8ollJloq oetqy ooJ
commltmeot CopyrlghL k 1homas erreLLkoehler ubllshers lnc San ranclsco CA All rlghLs reserved
wwwbkconnecLloncom
MoLlvaLlng eople non lnanclal rewards
ob r|cmt
!ob enrlchmenL means glvlng workers more lnLeresLlng challenglng and
complex Lasks Workers should also be glven Lhe opporLunlLy Lo compleLe
a whole unlL of work raLher Lhan lndlvldual separaLe Lasks
1hls ls moLlvaLlng for several reasons
lL glves workers Lhe chance Lo LesL Lhemselves and use Lhelr full range of
ablllLles
lL ls more moLlvaLlng Lhan [ob enlargemenL or [ob roLaLlon as lL lncreases
Lhe complexlLy or challenge lnvolved ln Lhe Lask raLher Lhan [usL slmply
provldlng more varleLy Lo Lhe work
Workers should obLaln a greaLer sense of achlevemenL and posslbly more
pralse or recognlLlon of Lhelr work when Lhey have successfully compleLed
a Lougher Lask
Workers respond beLLer as managers have shown LrusL ln Lhe facL LhaL
Lhey possess Lhe ablllLy Lo handle Lhe lncreaslng complexlLy and pressures
of Lhe work
1he managers need Lo [udge carefully however whaL an approprlaLe Lask ls
for a worker Lo handle lf lL ls Loo complex for Lhe workers or Lhey do noL
posses Lhe correcL sklll level Lhen expenslve mlsLakes could be made
ob |armt
!ob enlargemenL means slmply glvlng workers more Lasks Lo do of a slmllar
naLure or complexlLy 1hls wlll reduce Lhe monoLony or repeLlLlon lnvolved
ln a persons work buL over Llme Lhls wlll noL lncrease a person's
saLlsfacLlon or sense of achlevemenL
!ob roLaLlon ls a parL of Lhls and lnvolves havlng a wlder varleLy of Lasks Lo
do perhaps roLaLlng [obs wlLh oLher members ln your Leam buL noL
lncreaslng Lhe challenge of Lhe [ob
mpowrmt
LmpowermenL ls llke delegaLlon lL ls when power or auLhorlLy ls glven Lo
employees so Lhey can make Lhelr own declslons regardlng Lhelr worklng
llfe or lnsLance workers have conLrol over how Lo use Lhelr Llme and
decldlng Lhe prlorlLy of Lasks LhaL need Lo be done 1hey are encouraged
Lo conslder problems Lhey face and come up wlLh some soluLlons
or empowermenL Lo be successful workers musL have adequaLe Lralnlng
and/or good sklll levels ln order Lo be LrusLed Lo make Lhe correcL
declslons lf Lhey do noL Lhen expenslve mlsLakes can be made LhaL could
affecL Lhe whole buslness lL ls Lhe manager's [ob Lo [udge wheLher a
subordlnaLe can cope wlLh more auLhorlLy and declslonmaklng power lL
should be noLed however LhaL even lf managers pass down auLhorlLy Lo
Lhelr subordlnaLes Lhey are sLlll responslble for Lhe work LhaL ls done by
Lhem
@amwork|
1eamworklng ls where employees work ln groups or Leams 1hls can
meeL a worker's soclal needs as a person can more easlly bulld
frlendshlps and feel a sense of belonglng Lo a unlL or group and
hopefully Lo Lhe buslness as a whole 1hls applles ln much Lhe same
way as belng a member of a sporLs Leam or any oLher Leam
represenLlng a school or college
A buslness can creaLe a number of dlfferenL Lypes of Leams
examples lnclude producLlon Leams (ofLen known as cells) quallLy
clrcles and managemenL Leams
1eamworklng has oLher advanLages Lo a flrm over and above
lmprovlng moLlvaLlon lL can lead Lo greaLer flexlblllLy of producLlon
as employees are llkely Lo be mulLlskllled (able Lo do more Lhan
one persons [ob) as Lhey have learnL from oLher Leam members or
underLaken formal [ob roLaLlon 1hls means Lhey can cover any
absences and can qulckly adapL Lo a new producLlon Lechnlque
ln reallLy desplLe Lhe vlews of Perzberg LhaL moneLary meLhods of moLlvaLlon
have llLLle value flrms sLlll use money as a ma[or lncenLlve 1here are a
varleLy of paymenL sysLems LhaL a buslness could use Lo moLlvaLe lLs
employees
Jas ad Sa|ar|s
Wages are normally pald per hour worked and workers recelve money aL Lhe
end of Lhe week CverLlme ls pald for any addlLlonal hours worked durlng
Lhe week Powever salarles are annual (based on a year's work) and are
pald aL Lhe end of each monLh
Advatas
lncreases speed of work and Lherefore producLlvlLy
CfLen workers noL enLlLled Lo slck pay or hollday pay whlch reduces cosL
|sadvatas
Workers do noL concenLraLe on quallLy of work as emphasls on speed of
work
Workers may lgnore company rules such as PealLh and safeLy lssues ln
Lhey Lry Lo speed up ouLpuL
MoLlvaLlng eople lnanclal 8ewards
r| f|ts
1hese are ofLen known as 'perks' and are lLems an employee recelves ln addlLlon Lo Lhelr
normal wage or salary eg company car prlvaLe healLh lnsurance free meals
Advatas
Lncourages loyalLy Lo a company so employees may sLay for longer
Pelps meeL a workers human and soclal needs
|sadvatas
Wldespread use Lo a ma[orlLy of employees wlll lncrease cosLs sharply
9rformacr|atd pay
1hls ls pald Lo Lhose employees who meeL cerLaln LargeLs 1he LargeLs are ofLen evaluaLed
and revlewed ln regular appralsals wlLh managers lL ls sysLem LhaL ls belng
lncreaslngly used ln buslnesses ln Lhe uk
Advatas
Lasler for managers Lo monlLor and conLrol Lhelr sLaff
8educes Lhe Llme spenL on lndusLrlal relaLlons (negoLlaLlons wlLh Lrade unlons)
|sadvatas
lL can be dlfflculL Lo measure Lhe performance of employees ln servlce lndusLrles
lL does noL promoLe Leamwork and can lead Lo workers feellng Lhey are LreaLed
unfalrly lf colleagues are awarded more
9rof|t sar|
1hls ls a sysLem whereby employees recelve a proporLlon of Lhe company's proflLs
1hls means sLaff are ln Lhe same poslLlon as shareholders
Advatas
Should lmprove loyalLy Lo Lhe company and break down Lhe Lhem and us" barrler
lf all sLaff glven same amounL
Workers are more llkely Lo accepL changes Lo Lhelr worklng pracLlces lf Lhey can
see LhaL lL may decrease cosLs and so lncrease proflL
|sadvatas
1he share glven Lo employees ls ofLen Loo small Lo provlde a worLhwhlle lncenLlve
Workers may feel LhaL however hard Lhey work lL wlll noL have a noLlceable effecL
on Lhe company's proflL level so Lherefore no lncenLlve
Sar owrs|p
1hls ls a common lncenLlve for senlor managers who are glven shares ln Lhe company
raLher Lhan a sLralghLforward bonus or membershlp of a proflL sharlng scheme lL
means LhaL some sLaff are also shareholders
Advatas
Lmployees wlll work harder as Lhey have a sLake ln Lhe company [usL llke a
shareholder has
Workers are less llkely Lo leave Lhe flrm
|sadvatas
CfLen only avallable Lo senlor managers so can cause resenLmenL among oLher
sLaff
Comparlng varlous ay rograms
Motivation and 1ob Design
ackman and Oldham (1980)
Motivation through design oI work.
Five 'Core Job Dimensions
1. Skill Variety
2. Task Identity
3. Task SigniIicance
4. Autonomy
5. Feedback
Lxamples of Plgh and Low !ob CharacLerlsLlcs
SkiII Variety
High variety The owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds engines,
does body work, and interacts with customers
Low variety A body shop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day
Task Identity
High identity A cabinet maker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, builds
the object, and finishes it to perfection
Low identity A worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe solely to make table legs
Task Significance
High significance Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit
Low significance Sweeping hospital floors
Autonomy
High autonomy A telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day,
makes visits without supervision, and decides on the most effective techniques for a
particular installation
Low autonomy A telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to a
routine, highly specified procedure
Feedback
High feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then tests it to
determine if it operates properly
Low feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then routes it to a
quality control inspector who tests it for proper operation and makes needed
adjustments
ootce C !ohns tqoolzotloool 8ebovlot uoJetstooJloq ooJ Moooqloq llfe ot Jotk 4
Lh
ed CopyrlghL 1997 AdapLed by permlsslon of earson LducaLlon
lnc upper Saddle 8lver n!
uLLlng lL All 1ogeLher
WhaL we know abouL moLlvaLlng employees ln organlzaLlons
8ecognlze lndlvldual dlfferences
Lmployees have dlfferenL needs
uon'L LreaL Lhem all allke
Spend Lhe Llme necessary Lo undersLand whaL's lmporLanL
Lo each employee
use goals and feedback
Allow employees Lo parLlclpaLe ln declslons LhaL affecL
Lhem
Llnk rewards Lo performance
Check Lhe sysLem for equlLy
Summary and lmpllcaLlons
1 WhaL ls MoLlvaLlon?
MoLlvaLlon ls Lhe process LhaL accounLs for an
lndlvldual's lnLenslLy dlrecLlon and perslsLence
of efforL Loward reachlng Lhe goal
2 Pow do needs moLlvaLe people?
All needs Lheorles of moLlvaLlon propose a
slmllar ldea lndlvlduals have needs LhaL when
unsaLlsfled wlll resulL ln moLlvaLlon
Summary and lmpllcaLlons
3 Are Lhere oLher ways Lo moLlvaLe people?
rocess Lheorles focus on Lhe broader plcLure of how
someone can seL abouL moLlvaLlng anoLher lndlvldual
rocess Lheorles lnclude expecLancy Lheory and goal
seLLlng Lheory (and lLs appllcaLlon managemenL by
ob[ecLlves)
4 uo equlLy and falrness maLLer?
lndlvlduals look for falrness ln Lhe reward sysLem
8ewards should be percelved by employees as relaLed
Lo Lhe lnpuLs Lhey brlng Lo Lhe [ob
Summary and lmpllcaLlons
3 Pow can rewards and [ob deslgn moLlvaLe employees?
8ecognlLlon helps employees feel LhaL Lhey maLLer
Lmployers can use varlablepay programs Lo reward
performance Lmployers can use [ob deslgn Lo moLlvaLe
employees !obs LhaL have varleLy auLonomy feedback
and slmllar complex Lask characLerlsLlcs Lend Lo be more
moLlvaLlng for employees
6 WhaL klnds of mlsLakes are made ln reward sysLems?
CfLen reward sysLems do noL reward Lhe performance
LhaL ls expecLed Also reward sysLems someLlmes do noL
recognlze LhaL rewards are culLurebound