Introduction to Research (Scientific Inquiry)

What is Research?
research is an unusually stubborn and persisting effort to think straight which involves the gathering and the intelligent use of relevant data
H. M. Hamlin, What is Research? American Vocational Journal, September 1966.

Origin of the Word Research

From the French word "recherche" which means to travel through or survey

Scientific Research
The application of scientific approach to studying a problem. It is a way to acquire dependable and useful information. Its purpose is to discover answers to meaningful questions by applying scientific procedures. (Ary, 2001: 16)

What is Educational Research?

The ability to answer a question or concern facing many of us in the area of Education. Teachers, counselors, administrators, parents, and students continually need to seek information in order to perform their jobs.

Educational Research
is the application of the scientific approach to study of educational problems. is the way in which people acquire dependable and useful information about educative process its ultimate goal is to discover general principles or interpretations of behavior that people can use to explain, predict, and control events in educational situations.

 Personal Experience (Sensory Experience)

How do we know what we know and why do we do what we do?

Our personal experiences are limited We may be mistaken in our observations We may fail to see things clearly because of our biases

The Fallacy of Personal Experience

You might have eaten some type of food and got sick. Therefore, you never eat this food again because it makes you sick.

Other Experience Falacies Depending on individual

2 people at the same situation

Different Experiences

The Case Against Bread

More than 98% of convicted felons are bread users. Fully half of all children who grow up in bread consuming households score below average on standardized tests. In the 18th century, when virtually all bread was baked in the home, the average life expectancy was less than 50 years. More than 90% of all violent crimes are committed within 24 hours of eating bread. Primitive tribal societies that have no bread exhibit a low incidence of cancer, Alzheimer's, and Parkinson's disease.

Is it True?
Do women make nicer bosses?
Most of have seen the movie 9-5!

How do we know what we know and why do we do what we do?

Tradition (Agreement with Others)
Advice, rules, and approaches to handling problems are passed from year to year and accepted as truth Reliance on tradition eliminates the need to search for knowledge, makes accepting new knowledge difficult, and mitigates our desire to question existing practice.

The Fallacy of Tradition

Trees for building purposes should be felled in December. When transplanting a tree, be careful to have the same side facing the south. Wood from a tree struck by lightning should never be used in the construction of a house, or barn, or they in turn may also be struck by lightning. Rain drops on a child under a year will cause freckles.

Other Fallacies of Tradition/custom

Erroneous Rejected Not always turns out to be a reliable source of knowledge

How do we know what we know and why do we do what we do?

Authority (Expert Opinion)
Authorities can be wrong, and the public has a tendency to accept as fact what are actually opinions.

The Fallacy of Authority

In 1992 the Catholic Church reversed their decision charging Galileo with heresy. He had claimed the earth was round and revolved around the sun, which went against the teachings of the church.

Other Fallacies of Authority Not always true!! Authorities disagree among themselves Just take a look at the Bank of Century

Logic
Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning

Logic: Deductive Reasoning All human beings are mortal Sally is a human being Therefore, Sally is mortal

Another example:
Every mammal has lungs All rabbits are mammals. Therefore, every rabbit has lungs

Logic: Inductive Reasoning Every rabbit that has ever been observed has lungs. Therefore, every rabbits has lungs.

Research (The Scientific Method)

In contrast to sources of knowledge that are primarily idiosyncratic, informal, and influenced heavily by subjective interpretations, research involves a systematic process of gathering, interpreting, and reporting information.

Ways of Knowing

Quiz
Identify the source of knowledge? Personal exp Tradition Authority Logic Scientific inquiry

The Scientific Method

Testing ideas in the public arena by formulating a hypothesis (a tentative, testable assertion about certain behaviors, phenomena, or events) within a rigorous format. Must be reproducible and described in sufficient detail through 5 distinct steps:
State the problem Define the purpose of the study How to gather the information How to organize and analyze the information obtained How the information is interpreted

Those 5 Steps
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Identification of the problem Statement of the problem Formulation of hypotheses Prediction of consequences Testing hypotheses

Step one: Problem Identification

The realization that a problem exists. The problems: 1. A Question about something 2. A discrepancy or gap in knowledge

Step Two: Problem Statement

Clarify the problem State more precisely the nature of the scope of the problem that has been identified

Step 3: Formulation of Hypotheses Formulate the hypotheses about possible or tentative solutions of the problems

Example;
Is there any correlation between reading habit and reading achievement? Answer: There is correlation between RH and RA.

Step 4: Prediction of Consequences Predict the consequences of each hypothesis (What results if the data support the hypothesis)

Step 5: Testing Hypotheses

With the data, evaluate the adequacy of each hypothesis If the data support the hypothesis, it is accepted as a reasonable explanation.

Research Approaches
Quantitative (Numeric data) Qualitative

Two Approaches to Research

Quantitative
Emphasizes numbers, measurements, control, and experimentation This is the traditional approach in AE research

Qualitative
Emphasizes natural settings, observations, verbal narratives, and interpretations Emerged in the mid1970s as an approach to educational research

Goals
Quantitative
Test theory Establish facts Show relationships Predict Statistically describe

Qualitative
Understand theory Develop understanding Describe multiple realities Capture naturally occurring behavior

Design
Quantitative
Structured Predetermined Formal Specific

Qualitative
Evolving Flexible General

Sample
Quantitative
Large Representative Random Selection Control Groups Stratified

Qualitative
Small Nonrepresentative Purposeful

Data
Quantitative
Quantities Counts Measures Instruments Numbers Statistics

Qualitative
Verbal descriptions Field Notes Observations Documents Photographs Peoples own words Narrative

Methods
Quantitative
Experiments Quasi-experiments Surveys Structured Interviews Structured Observations

Qualitative
Observation Open-ended interviewing Review of documents and artifacts

Which Approach is Best?

The problem you are studying determines which approach to take. One is not better than the other. However, some researchers tend to look down their nose at the qualitative researcher!

Which Would You Select?

Job turnover is a major problem in extension and teaching! Get with a partner and quickly design a study to investigate this problem.
Decide whether to approach this problem quantitatively or qualitatively Tell What you would do and Why What are the advantages and disadvantages of your approach

Mixed Methods
Some researchers used both qualitative and quantitative methods in a single study. This is known as a mixed method approach.

Categories of Research
Basic Applied Action
The process used in the 3 types of research is the same; the setting and outcomes are different

Basic Research
Also called pure or fundamental research The goal is to understand and explain, to provide broad generalizations about how phenomena are related. Not concerned with immediate application of the results to practical situations Most educational research does not fall into this category!

Examples of Basic Research in Education

How does the memory system work How are language skills developed How does one learn psychomotor skills

Applied Research
The purpose is to test theories and other ideas in the context of naturally occurring educational settings. Usually focused on a problem that needs to be solved to improve educational practice.

Examples of Applied Research

Does computer aided instruction improve student learning? What is the effect of immediate feedback and delayed feedback on student achievement?

Action Research
Typically done in a school setting Is designed and conducted by practitioners who analyze the data to improve their own practice. Action research can be done by individuals or by teams of colleagues.

Action Research
It has been said, "Teachers often leave a mark on their students, but they seldom leave a mark on their profession" (Wolfe, 1989). Through the process and products of action research teachers can do both.

Examples of Action Research

Does flash cards of horticultural plants with scientific names improve student learning? Do leaf collections really help students learn tree identification? Do classes with assigned seats have less discipline problems than classes without assigned seating?

Action Research
Get back with your partner and identify three examples of action research a teacher or extension agent could conduct in their local setting.

Types of Research
There is no general agreement on the types of educational research which exist. The list that follows is fairly comprehensive.

Types of Research
Historical* - What was Descriptive (sometimes called Survey) What is
Ethnographic Correlational Ex Post Facto (also known as Causel-Comparative)

Experimental What can be

*Some

researchers classify Historical research as Descriptive research

Types of Research
Historical - descriptive research that involves describing and interpreting events, conditions, or situations of the past. As with all history, the purpose is to study the past in order to understand the present, and maybe to plan for the future. It generally relies on qualitative data such as written documents and oral histories.

Historical Research
It is possibly the least popular form of educational research in terms of the number of studies produced on an annual basis. Grant and other types of educational research funding tend to favor current issues and conditions.

Historical Research
Historical research also can be difficult if the period is far enough back in time that records are not readily available and individuals associated with the event are no longer alive. However, if done well, historical research can be most interesting particularly if a connection is made to a present issue or situation.

Historical Research Examples

What was the predecessor of the Cooperative Extension Service? What does John Dewey say about the integration of academic and vocational education? What did 4-H members read in the past and what are the implications for the present? How did Farm Life Schools differ from regular high schools?

Historical Research
Basic characteristics of historical research are:
rich descriptive narrative. mostly qualitative data presented. broad research questions are frequently used rather than narrowly defined hypotheses.

Historical Research
Data Sources
Persons such as former teachers, students, parents. Historical Documents such as policy statements, curricular guidelines, etc. Records such as student transcripts. Relics such as desks, writing instruments, equipment.

Historical Research
Research Tools
Structured interviews. Visits to historical sites and buildings. Archives Libraries

Types of Research
Descriptive - attempts to describe and explain conditions of the present. It relies on qualitative and quantitative data gathered from written documents, personal interviews, test results, surveys, etc. Often people will call this type of research Survey Research

Descriptive Research
Because of its flexibility and the fact that it deals with current topics, descriptive research is probably the most popular form of research in education today. It is also popular because data can be collected from a wide variety of sources.

Descriptive Research
Basic characteristics of descriptive research are:
It provides a descriptive analysis of a given population or sample. Any inferences are left to the readers. Qualitative, quantitative or a combination of both types of data can be presented. Hypotheses or broad research questions are used .

Descriptive Research
Data Sources
Persons such as teachers, students, parents, administrators, etc. Documents such as policy statements, curricular guidelines. Records such as student transcripts.

Descriptive Research
Research Tools
Structured interviews. Structured questionnaires and surveys Standardized tests.

Descriptive Research Examples

What are the characteristics of agricultural education students? What is the level of job satisfaction of extension agents? Why do teachers leave teaching?

Types of Research
Ethnographic - attempts to describe group behavior and interactions in social settings. It relies on qualitative techniques especially observation and careful recording of events and social interactions.

Ethnographic Research
Ethnography is from the Greek "ethnos" for people, tribes, or nations and "graphy" for writing. Ethnographic research is the writing about people in their natural setting. It comes from the social sciences and was made popular by the likes of Margaret Mead, the noted anthropologist.

Ethnographic Research
It is a form of descriptive research and is also referred to as "observational research" and "naturalistic inquiry." Ethnography is well-suited for educational research because so much of what we do in education is based on human interaction in social settings.

Ethnographic Research
The major benefit of ethnographic research is that it provides rich descriptions of human behavior in natural settings not in artificially constructed, experimental settings. In addition to the question of subjectivity, the major drawback of ethnography is that the researcher cannot infer from a small sample to larger populations. Any inferences made in an ethnographic study are left to the readers to accept or reject.

Ethnographic Research
Data Sources
Persons associated with the subject of study. Observations.

Research Tools
Structured Interviews. Careful recording of events.

Ethnographic Research
Examples
What is the impact of peer pressure on student behavior? Does the gender of the teacher affect class participation? Does teacher movement in the classroom contribute to desirable student behavior?

Types of Research
Correlational - attempts to explore relationships or make predictions. It relies on quantitative data such as test scores, grade point averages, attitudinal instruments, etc. which can be correlated and shown that some relationship exists between or among them.

Correlational Research
A caution has to be advised when considering correlational research and cause and effect.
Establishing cause and effect is very difficult and may be impossible due to the myriad interactions of many variables in social science research.

Correlational Research
Data Sources
Raw scores such as standardized test scores. Measures such as grade point averages. Dichotomous data , data which has two possibilities such as male/female or pass/fail.

Correlational Research
Research Tools
Standardized tests are the most common tools for doing correlational studies.

Correlational Research
Correlation is the relationship between two or more variables or sets of data. It is expressed in the form of a coefficient with +1.00 indicating a perfect positive correlation; -1.00 indicating a perfect inverse correlation; 0.00 indicating a complete lack of a relationship. You can start getting excited if the correlation is .40 or higher.

Correlational Research
Commonly used statistics to calculate correlations
Pearsons Product Moment Correlation Spearmans Rank Order Correlation Kendalls Tau Point Biserial Phi Correlation Coefficient

Correlational Research Examples

Is there a relationship between family income and grade point average? Is there a relationship between part time employment and grade point average? Is there a relationship between years of teaching experience and VoCATS scores? Is there a relationship between education and income?

Types of Research
Causal Comparative (Ex Post Facto) attempts to explore cause and effect relationships where causes already exist and cannot be manipulated. It relies on both qualitative and quantitative data such as written documents, interviews, test scores, etc.

Ex Post Facto Research

In educational research there are some things we can not manipulate, but we can study the effects after they have occurred:
Malnutrition Twins 4-H or FFA member Growing up on a farm Sexual abuse Race, gender

Ex Post Facto Research

In experimental research:
If X, then Y

In ex post facto research:

Y is observed, X, Q or Z may have caused it
The researchers job is to discover if it is X, Q or Z.

Ex Post Facto Research

Examples
Are former 4-H members more likely to hold community leadership positions? Do malnourished children have lower grades in school? Do agriculture teachers who were state FFA officers have more active FFA chapters? Do people who were reared on a farm have a stronger work ethic?
The treatment has already occurred!

Types of Research
Experimental - attempts to explore cause and effect relationships where causes can be manipulated to produce different kinds of effects. It relies mostly on quantitative data such as test scores and measures of performance.

Two Types of Experimental Research

Quasi-Experimental
Specific Hypothesis Researcher manipulates at least 1 variable Assigns treatment at random to each group Has a control group CANNOT RANDOMLY ASSIGN SUBJECTS TO GROUPS

True Experimental
Specific Hypothesis Researcher manipulates at least 1 variable Assigns treatment at random to each group Has a control group Randomly assigns subjects to groups

Typically uses intact classes

Experimental Research Examples

Is teaching method A better in bringing about student learning than method B? Does a teaching unit on Race Relationships improve students racial tolerance?

Why Conduct Research?

To better understand various phenomena To disprove fraudulent claims To improve education, agriculture or your discipline To obtain grants To get promoted (if you teach at the university)

Purposes or end sought

To become familiar with phenomena; to gain new insights; to formulate a more specific research problem or research hypothesis.

Types of research
To investigate relationships between variables. (Begins with specific hypotheses.) To test hypoteses of causal relationships between variables. (Begins with specific hypotheses.)

To portray accurately the incidence, distribution, and characteristics of a group or situation. (Usually not begun with specific hypothesis.)

(Explore)

(Describe)
Descriptive Research

(Explain Predict)

(Control)

Correlational/Ex Post Facto Survey Research Exp./Quasi-Exp.

Independent Variables

Independent Var. (X) controlled by investigator

Independent variables (X) not controlled by investigator