Introductory Chemistry, 2nd Edition Nivaldo Tro

Chapter 9 Electrons in Atoms and the Periodic Table

Why do Blimps Float?

Because they are filled with a gas less dense than air Early blimps used hydrogen gas; hydrogens flammability led to the Hindenburg disaster Blimps now use helium, a nonflammable gas in fact it doesnt undergo any chemical reactions This chapter investigates models of the atom we use to explain the differences in the properties of the elements
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Electromagnetic Radiation
Light is one of the forms of energy Light is one type of a more general form of energy called electromagnetic radiation Electromagnetic radiation travels in waves
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Characteristics of a Wave

Wavelength = distance from peak to peak Amplitude = height of the peak Frequency = the number of wave peaks that pass in a given time Speed = rate the waves travel
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Particles of Light
Scientists in the early 20th century showed that electromagnetic radiation was composed of particles we call photons Max Planck and Albert Einstein photons are particles of light energy Each wavelength of light has photons that have a different amount of energy the longer the wavelength, the lower the energy of the photons
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Light passed through a prism is separated into all its colors = continuous spectrum; colors blend into each other Color of light is determined by its wavelength

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Electromagnetic Spectrum

Visible light is a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum

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Lights Relationship to Matter

Atoms can absorb energy, but they must eventually release it When atoms emit energy, it is released in the form of light = emission spectrum Atoms dont absorb or emit all colors, only very specific wavelengths; the spectrum of wavelengths can be used to identify the element
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Emission Spectrum or Line Spectrum

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Line Spectra = specific wavelengths are emitted; characteristic of atoms

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The Bohr Model of the Atom

Nuclear Model of atom does not explain how atom can gain or lose energy Neils Bohr developed a model to explain how structure of the atom changes when it undergoes energy transitions Bohr postulated that energy of the atom was quantized, and that the amount of energy in the atom was related to the electrons position in the atom
quantized means that the atom could only have very specific amounts of energy
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Bohr Model of Atom: Electron Orbits

In the Bohr Model, electrons travel in orbits or energy levels around the nucleus The farther the electron is from the nucleus the more energy it has

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The Bohr Model of the Atom: Orbits and Energy

Each orbit (energy level) has a specific amount of energy
Energy of each orbit is symbolized by n, with values of 1, 2, 3 etc; the higher the value the farther it is from the nucleus and the more energy an electron in that orbit has

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The Bohr Model of the Atom: Energy Transitions

Electrons can move from a lower to a higher (farther from nucleus) energy level by absorbing energy When the electron moves from a higher to a lower (closer to nucleus) energy level, energy is emitted from the atom as a photon of light
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The Bohr Model of the Atom Ground and Excited States

Ground state atoms with their electrons in the lowest energy level possible; this lowest energy state is the most stable. Excited state a higher energy state; electrons jump to higher energy levels by absorbing energy Atom is less stable in an excited state; it will release the extra energy to return to the ground state
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Electron Energy Levels:

Energy Level 3rd 2nd 1st How many e fit? 18 electrons 8 electrons 2 electrons (2n2) 2 x 32 2 x 22 2 x 12

Each energy level has a maximum # of electrons it can hold. H has one electron; it is in the 1st energy level.

Bohr model
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Bohr Model for Atom

Electrons fill the Lowest energy levels first

Bohr Model for C with 6 electrons

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The Bohr Model of the Atom Success and Failure

The Bohr Model very accurately predicts the spectrum of hydrogen with its one electron It is inadequate when applied to atoms with many electrons
A better theory was needed

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The Quantum-Mechanical Model Orbitals

Erwin Schrdinger used mathematics to predict probability of finding an electron at a certain location in the atom Result is a map of regions in the atom that have a particular probability for finding the electron Orbital = a region with a very high probability of finding the electron when it has a particular amount of energy
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The Quantum-Mechanical Model

Each principal energy level or shell has one or more subshells
# of subshells same as the principal quantum number or shell

The subshells are often represented as a letter

s, p, d, f

Each kind of subshell has orbitals with a particular shape

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Shells & Subshells

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Probability Maps & Orbital Shape s orbitals are spherical

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Probability Maps & Orbital Shape p orbitals

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Subshells and Orbitals

The subshells of a principal shell have slightly different energies
the subshells in a shell of H all have the same energy, but for multielectron atoms the subshells have different energies s<p<d<f

Each subshell contains one or more orbitals

s subshells have 1 orbital p subshells have 3 orbitals d subshells have 5 orbitals f subshells have 7 orbitals
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The Quantum Mechanical Model Energy Transitions

As in Bohr Model, atoms gain or lose energy as electron moves between orbitals in different energy shells and subshells The ground state of the electron is the lowest energy orbital it can occupy Excited state = when an electron moves to a higher energy orbital
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The Bohr Model vs. The Quantum Mechanical Model

Both the Bohr and Quantum Mechanical models predict the spectrum of hydrogen very accurately Only the Quantum Mechanical model predicts the spectra of multielectron atoms

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Electron Configurations
Electron configuration = distribution of electrons into the various energy shells and subshells in an atom in its ground state Each energy shell and subshell has a maximum number of electrons it can hold

s = 2, p = 6, d = 10, f = 14

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Writing Electron Configurations

We place electrons in the energy shells and orbitals in order of energy, from low energy up: Aufbau Principle (order of filling of orbitals) The d and f orbitals overlap into the higher energy levels

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7s 6s

6p 5p 4p

6 d 5d 4d 3d

5f
4f

5s
Energy 4s 3s

3p 2p

Relative Energy of Orbitals in the Quantum Mechanical Model

2s

1s

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Order of Subshell Filling in Ground State Electron Configurations

Start by drawing a diagram putting each energy shell on a row and listing the subshells, (s, p, d, f), for that shell in order of energy, (left-to-right)
next, draw arrows through the diagonals, looping back to the next diagonal each time 1s 2s 3s 4s 5s 6s 7s
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2p 3p 4p 5p 6p 3d 4d 5d 6d 4f 5f

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Filling the Orbitals in a Subshell with Electrons

Energy shells fill from lowest energy to high Subshells fill from lowest energy to high spdf A single orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons (Paulis exclusion principle); orbitals that are in the same subshell have the same energy When filling orbitals that have the same energy, place one electron in each before completing pairs (Hunds rule)
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Electron Configuration of Atoms in their Ground State

Electron configuration = order of filling with electrons; number of electrons in that subshell written as a superscript Kr = 36 electrons = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6 Shorthand way: use the symbol of the previous noble gas in brackets to represent all the inner electrons, then just write the last set Rb = 37 electrons = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s1 = [Kr]5s1
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Electron Configurations
how many electrons in that orbital
22s22p3 Nitrogen: 1s

energy level

orbital

(atomic number = 7)
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Example Write the Ground State Orbital Diagram and Electron Configuration of Magnesium.
1. Determine the atomic number of the

element from the Periodic Table

This gives the number of protons and electrons in the atom Mg, Z = 12, so Mg has 12 protons and 12 electrons

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Example Write the Ground State Orbital Diagram and Electron Configuration of Magnesium.
2. Draw 9 boxes to represent the first 3

energy levels s and p orbitals

1s

2s

2p

3s

3p
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Example Write the Ground State Orbital Diagram and Electron Configuration of Magnesium.
3. Add one electron to each box in a set,

then pair the electrons before going to the next set until you use all the electrons

1s

When pairing, put in opposite arrows

2s 2p 3s 3p
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Example Write the Ground State Orbital Diagram and Electron Configuration of Magnesium.
4. Use the diagram to write the electron

configuration
Write the number of electrons in each set as a superscript next to the name of the orbital set 1s22s22p63s2 = [Ne]3s2
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
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Valence Electrons
Valence electrons = electrons in all the subshells with the highest principal energy shell (outermost shell) Core electrons = in lower energy shells

Valence electrons responsible for both chemical and physical properties of atoms. Valence electrons responsible for chemical reactions
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Valence Electrons
Rb = 37 electrons = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s1 The highest principal energy shell of Rb that contains electrons is the 5th, therefore Rb has 1 valence electron and 36 core electrons Kr = 36 electrons = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6 The highest principal energy shell of Kr that contains electrons is the 4th, therefore Kr has 8 valence electrons and 28 core electrons

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How many valence electrons does each atom have?

carbon: 1s22s22p2 chlorine: 1s22s22p63s23p5

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How many valence electrons does each atom have?

carbon: 1s22s22p2 = 4 chlorine: 1s22s22p63s23p5 = 7

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Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table

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Electron Configurations from the Periodic Table

Elements in the same period (row) have valence electrons in the same principal energy shell
The number of valence electrons increases by one as you progress across the period Elements in the same group (column) have the same number of valence electrons and they are in the same kind of subshell

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Electron Configuration & the Periodic Table

Elements in the same column have similar chemical and physical properties because their valence shell electron configuration is the same
The number of valence electrons for the main group elements is the same as the group number
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The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical Model

The properties of the elements are largely determined by the number of valence electrons they contain Since elements in the same column have the same number of valence electrons, they show similar properties

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The Noble Gas Electron Configuration

The noble gases have 8 valence electrons
except for He, which has only 2 electrons

Noble gases are especially unreactive

He and Ne are practically inert

Reason noble gases are unreactive is that the electron configuration of the noble gases is especially stable
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