ComputerHW SystemSWCourse Offering

Computer Hardware and System
Software Concepts
Course Objective
To introduce
– fundamentals of Computer Architecture
– concepts of System Software
– concepts of Operating Systems
– concepts of Computer Networks.
ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003
Copyright © 2004, Infosys
Technologies Ltd Version No: 2.0
References
Andrew S. Tanenbaum: Structured Computer Organization , PHI, 3rd

edition, 1991.
Silberschatz and Galvin: Operating System Concepts , 4th edition,

Addison-Wesley Pub, 1995.
Andrew S. Tanenbaum: Computer Networks, PHI, 1991.
Alfred V.Aho, Ravi Sethi, Jeffrey D.Ullman: Compilers -Principles,

Techniques and Tools, Narosa Publishing House, 1986.
Organization of a simple computer
Central Processing Unit
(CPU) Input/Output devices
Main Memory Hard Disk KeyBoard CD ROM Drive
KeyBoard
BUS (Communication channel)
•Central Processing Unit (CPU)

•Main Memory
•Input / Output devices
•Bus
CPU (Processor)
Brain of the computer
Function
– Fetch instructions from memory
– Examine
– Execute
Consists of 3 functional units
– Control Unit (CU)
– ALU
– Registers
CPU – Functional Units
 Fetches Instructions from memory
CPU
 Interprets the instructions
Performs arithmetic operations
Control Unit
Performs Logical operations
Very high speed memory units in the CPU-
for storing very small amount of data.
ALU Examples
•Program Counter (PC)
•Instruction Register (IR)
•Memory Address Register (MAR)
Registers
•Memory Buffer Register (MBR)
•Accumulator (A)
Memory
MEMORY
Internal Main Cache Secondary
Memory Memory Memory Memory
Internal External
RAM ROM
Cache Cache
Bus
Parallel wires that carry several bits at a time
Carries instructions, data, addresses or commands
Unidirectional or bi-directional
Major Categories
– Data bus
– Address bus
– Control bus
Bus width and Bus speed are the two major components for performance
measure
Registers, CPU and the memory
Main Memory
CPU
Special Purpose
Registers
Control Unit Program Counter
MAR
Arithmetic and logic

Unit
Instruction Register
General Purpose
MBR
registers
Von Neumann architecture
Data & Program, both stored in the same place.
Central Processing
Program Unit (CPU)
Control Unit
Address Bus
d
an Arithmetic Logic
m
gr a ta y Unit (ALU)
o a r
Pr D mo
e Data/Program Bus
M
REGISTERS
Advantages
+it treats data and programs alike meaning the same mechanisms to
fetch data and the programs.
Disadvantage
− same bus used for both program as well the data leads to so
called Von Neumann bottleneck.
Von Neumann architecture - characteristics
One processor
Use of stored programs
Sequential processing of instructions
Single Instruction, Single Data stream (SISD) mode
Execution of the Instructions
The execution process of the instruction stored in the memory happens

in three phases.
– Fetch Phase: In this phase the instructions retrieved picked from the
memory.
– Decode Phase: Once the instructions are retrieved these are decoded by
the CU.
– Execute Phase: Once the instructions are decoded, they are executed by
the ALU (in case they are Arithmetic instructions).
Summary
Basic Computer Architecture
Execution of Instructions
Session Plan
Introduction to the Concepts of System Software
Introduction to Operating System

– Memory Management
– Process Management
– Information Management
– Device Management
Software Classification
Software
Application Software System Software
System Software
System programs which provide a more convenient environment for program

development and execution
Example
– Compilers
– Assemblers
– Loaders
– Linkers
– Operating System
Translators
A program which converts a user’s program written in some language to

another language.
The language in which the user’s program is written is called the source
language
The language to which the source language is converted is called the target
language
Translator
Source Program (High level language) Source Program (Assembly language)
Compiler Assembler
Target Program (Object /Exe code ) Target Program (Machine language )
Loaders
Are system programs

Loader loads the binary code in the memory ready for execution
Transfer the control to 1st instruction

Responsible for locating program in the main memory every time it is being
executed.
Various Loading Schemes
Assemble and Go Loader
Absolute Loader
Relocatable Loaders
Linkers
Large Program
main sort search count
Linkers
Linking is the process of combining various pieces of code and data

together to form a single executable that can be loaded in memory.
Linking can be done at compile time, and also at run time

 Static Loading and Linking
 Dynamic Loading & Linking
Compiler
Are system programs that translates an input program in a high level

language into its machine language equivalent
Checks for errors
Optimizes the code
Prepares the code for execution
Phases in a compiler
Lexical analysis
Syntactic analysis
Semantic analysis
Intermediate code generation
Code optimization
Code generation
Phases in a compiler
Lexical Analysis
(Scanner /
Tokenizer)
Front End
Syntax Analysis
(Parser)
Semantic
Analysis
Symbol
Error
Table
Intermediate Processing
Manager
Code
Generation
Code Optimization
Back End
Code generation
Compilation for different machines
High Level
HLL1 HLL2 HLL3 Languages
Compilers
Resultant
1001010 1100111 1001010 1100111 1001010 1100111 Object Code for
111 0001 111 0001 111 0001 Machine M1
and M2
Object Object Object Object Object Object
Code for Code for Code for Code for Code for Code for
M1 M2 M1 M2 M1 M2
Compiler (Front - End )
Largely dependent on the source language
Independent of the target machine
Comprises the first three phases viz.,

– Lexical Analysis
– Syntactic Analysis
– Semantic Analysis
Sometimes the intermediate code generation phase is also included
Back-End
Dependent on the target machine
Independent of the source language
Includes the last two phases viz.,

– Code Optimization
– Code Generation
Interpreter
Interpreter
User (line by line) Result
pgm
D
ata
Interpreter
Is a systems program that looks at and executes programs on a line-by-line

basis rather than producing object code
Whenever the programs have to be executed repeatedly, the source code has
to be interpreted every time. In contrast the compiled programs create an
object code and this object code will be executed.
entire source code needs to be present in memory during execution as a result

of which the memory space required is more when compared to that of a
compiled code.
Used in test environments as overhead of compilation is not there
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Operating systems
A program which acts as an interface between the user and the computer and
provides an environment in which a user can execute programs
Viewed as a Resource Allocator or Resource Manager

– Memory
– Processors
– Information
– Peripherals
Memory management
Plays an important role as utilization of memory is crucial to the performance of

the system
– Allow as many user jobs as possible to be active
– Respond to changes in memory demand by individual user jobs
– Prevent unauthorized changes to a user job’s memory region
– Implement allocation and addressing as efficiently as possible
Memory management Schemes
Single Contiguous allocation
Partitioned allocation
Relocatable Partitioned allocation
Simple Paged allocation
Demand Paging
Segmentation
Single Contiguous Allocation
Memory Memory
OS 20K OS 20K
I am waiting 
20K
User’s Job
User’s Job 50K
Unused 30K New Job Waiting

20K
for CPU time
Case:1 Case:2
Partitioned Allocation
Fixed Partitioned allocation
Variable Partitioned allocation
Fixed Partitioned Allocation
Memory Memory Memory
OS OS OS
20K 20K 20K
(20K) (20K) (20K)
Job 1 10K Free 10K Free 10K
Job 2 10K Job 2 10K Job 2 10K
Job 4
(Only 10K used)
Job 3 20K Free 20K 20K
Not Used
Free 10K Free 10K Free 10K
Case:1 Case:2 Case:3
Variable Partitioned Allocation
Memory Memory
OS OS
(20K) (20K)
I am waiting for
Job 1 Free free memory 
(10K) (10K)
Job 2 Job 2
(10K) (10K)
Job 3 Free
(20K) (20K) New Job
(30K)
Free Job 4
(10K) (10K)
Case:1 Case:2
(A) Technologies Ltd (B)
Version No: 2.0
Variable Partitioned allocation
No predetermined partitioning of memory – allocates the exact amount of

memory space needed for each process as and when required
Processes are loaded into consecutive areas until the memory is filled or
remaining space is too small to accommodate a new process.
Disadvantage
– External Fragmentation
Relocatable Partitioned Allocation
Space wasted due to fragmentation can be used by doing compaction –

running jobs are squeezed together by relocating them and clubbing the rest of
the free space into one large block.
Simple to implement
Relocatable partitioned allocation
MEMORY MEMORY
OS OS
JOB 2 10 K
FREE 20 K
JOB 2 10 K 60 K
FREE
FREE 30 K
FREE 10 K
After Compaction
Simple paged allocation
Divides the jobs address space into pages of the same size(4K)
Divides the main memory address space into blocks/frames(4 K)
Pages are units of memory that are swapped in and out of primary memory
Pages are grouped together for a given user job and are placed in page tables
Simple paged allocation
Frame 0
Frame 1
2
A-
Page 0
Page 1 Frame 2 B-0
A-
Page 2 1
Job A Page 0
Page 1
Frame 3
Job B
A-
1
B-
0 Free Frame Frame 4
Frame 5
Free Frame Frame 6
Frame 7
Free Frame Frame 8
Memory Space
Internal Fragmentation due to simple paging
allocation
Frame 0
-0
A
A-1 Frame 1
Page 0
Page 1 A-2
Job A 17K Page 2
Frame 2
Page 3
Page 4 A-3
Logical Address Pages of Job A
Frame 3
A-
Page size=4K 4
Only 1K used
3K of memory Frame 4
wasted
Memory
Demand paging
Illusion of infinite memory available to the user (Virtual Memory)
Job operating under demand paging
A page is brought to the main memory only when there is a demand
Frame 0
-2
A
Page 0
Page 1 0 Frame 1
B -
Page 2
Job A Page 0
Page 1
Frame 2
Job B B-1
Memory Space
Demand paging
Page Table
Page number Frame number Modify
Status
OS
JOB 1 1000
2000
2 3 1 0 3000
4000
7000
Page replacement algorithms
Algorithms based on which the pages are selected for replacement
Examples
– First in First out (FIFO )
– Least Frequently Used (LFU)
– Least Recently Used ( LRU )
– Not Recently Used (NRU )
Thrashing
Most of the time is being spent in either swapping in or swapping out of the
pages from main memory to secondary memory,instead of doing useful work
This high paging activity when happens frequently is called THRASHING
To overcome thrashing ,system schedules some pages to be removed from

memory in the background (Page Stealing) and continues till a certain level of
page frames are free
Segmentation
Segment is a grouping of information that is treated as a logical entity
A process is divided into different segments each of its own length for example
one segment can correspond to a single subroutine, a group of closely related
subroutines etc.
Segmentation uses unequal chunks
Chunk size is determined by the programmer
Each individual segment can be protected
Requires two-level translation : Segment tables to page tables and then to

main memory
Process Management
Functions:
– To keep track of the status of each process
– To suspend and choose some processes based on some criteria
– To coordinate inter process communication
Some concepts
Processor
– Hardware component that is capable of executing instructions
Process
– An instance of a program in execution
– Is an active entity whereas a program is a passive entity
– Needs certain resources for execution in which a processor is one of them
Structure of a process
Code Region : Contains the executable instructions of the process
Data Region : Holds the data areas used by the process
Stack Region : Holds the dynamic data such as local data in a

procedure,arguments to a procedure/function etc.
Program Counter (PC): The PC gives the address of the next instruction to be
executed by the process.
States of a process
New : Created
Ready : Assign a process to a processor
Run : Instruction execution
Blocked : For an event to occur (Ex: I/O)
Terminated : Finished execution
Process State Diagram.
Admitted
New
Interrupt
Ready
I/O or Event
Completion Running Exit
IO or Event
Waiting wait(Blocked) Terminated
Context switching
The task of switching the CPU to another process by saving the state of the old
process and loading the saved state of the new process is known as context
switching
Context switching
– Keeps the CPU busy all the time
– Occurs when any of the following situations is encountered

• An I/O operation is initiated
• An interrupt occurs
• An I/O is completed
• A process terminates
Some concepts
Uniprogramming
Multiprogramming
Multiprocessing
Multitasking
Scheduling
Policy to decide which ready process is to be picked up next.
Criteria which lets a particular policy to be chosen are the following:

– CPU Utilization
– Throughput
– Turnaround time
– Waiting time
– Response time
Scheduling policy
Scheduling policies are of two categories

– Non-Preemptive scheduling
– Preemptive scheduling
Non-preemptive scheduling
CPU is allocated to a process till the job is over or incurs an I/O wait
Example
– FCFS ( First Come First Serve )
Disadvantage
Monopoly of the process
Preemptive scheduling
Fixed time slice is specified during which a process gets attention
If the process gets terminated before the time slice then CPU makes a context
switch
Example
– Round Robin
– Shortest Job First(SJF)
– Priority Scheduling
SJF and Priority Scheduling may be either preemptive or non-preemptive.
Threads
Thread is light weight where as a process is heavy weight.
A thread is a part of the program. But a process is a program itself
In the case of multi threading two parts of the same program can execute
simultaneously
Threads shares the same address space, data section and resources
Different Stack (to hold local data) and PC.
Context switching is easy in the case of threads
File Management
Part of the Operating System that deals with effective information

management
Features:
– Minimal I/O operations on files
– Flexibility between logical and physical block size
– Automatic allocation of file space
– Flexible file naming facility such as links, aliases etc
File System.
File System is a method of storing and managing the files, which contain data.
This makes it easy to locate and access the data.
Different Operating Systems incorporate different File Systems.
Example.
– MSDOS - file system
– NTFS (New Technology File System)
– Unix File System
Structure of a Hard disk
SECTOR
TRACK
CYLINDER
PLATTER
FAT.
File Allocation Table (FAT) is a file system that was developed for MS-DOS.
It is used in consumer versions of Microsoft Windows up to and including Windows Me.
The purpose of the “File Allocation Table” is to keep track of which areas of the disk are
available and which areas are in use.
FAT 12 was the first version in FAT.
How to access the contents of a file?
FAT
0 FFFD
1 FFFF
First Cluster of File A 2 0003
End of File B is cluster 6

3 0004
4 0007
First Cluster of File B 5 0006

End of File A is cluster 7
6 FFFF
7 FFFF
Cluster 8 is free
8 0000
Volume structure in MS-DOS
Boot-sector : Contains a bootstrap loader and disk characteristics
FAT : Main file allocation table
Additional FAT : used for recovery during the failure of main FAT
Root directory : It is in a fixed position of fixed size
File space : Rest of disk space which is available for files and sub-directories.
Additional
Boot Sector FAT Root Directory File Space
FATs
Volume Structure of a Disk
UNIX File system
UNIX has multiple file systems
A file system
– is a formatted partition of the disk
– Is a group of files having relevant information
There is always one compulsory file system known as the root.
Volume structure in UNIX
Boot block : occupies the beginning of the root file system
Super block : Has the state of the file-its size,where to find the free space on
the file system,how many files it can store etc.
Inode list : It follows the super block-Give the internal representation of the file
Data Block : Contains data.( Size of the blocks can vary from 512 bytes to 4K)
Volume structure of UNIX
Boot Block Super Block Inode Block Data Block File System 1
Inode pointer structure Data Block
Direct 0
Direct 1 Data Block
.
.
. Data Block
Direct 9
Data Block
Single Index Block
Indirect
Double
Indirect
Data Block
Triple Index Block Index Block
Indirect
Array of 13
pointers
Data Block
Index Block Index Block Index Block
NTFS.
NTFS stands for New Technology File System.
It was introduced with Windows NT
Can support up to 2 TB in size.
no limitation on file sizes.
Allows encryption of files, which FAT does not allow.
NTFS is more reliable.
Security and access control
NTFS
MFT USER FILE SPACE USER FILE SPACE
Copy of first 16
MFT records
Device management
The part of the operating system that manages to allocate a device to a

requirement or a users job is a device manager.
Functions
– To provide the simplest interface possible to the rest of the system
– To optimize I/O for maximum concurrency
Interrupt handling
Interrupt
– is a hardware facility that enables a device to notify the CPU.
– causes the CPU to suspend its work, saves the status and jumps to the interrupt
handler routine at a fixed address in memory.
– The interrupt handler routine determines the cause of the interrupt, does the
necessary processing and returns the CPU to the execution state prior to the
interrupt.
Software Interrupts
Software interrupts are special instructions to implement system calls.
System call is a function that is called by an application to invoke the kernel

service.
– Checks the arguments given by the application
– Builds a data structure to convey the arguments to the kernel
– Executes a special instruction called software interrupt or trap
Direct Memory Access (DMA)
Direct Memory Access (DMA) is a technique that is used to transfer data

between memory and I/O devices .
– data channels that allow direct transfer of information between devices and memory
without routing those transfers through the CPU are said to be performing DMA
DMA unit (called DMA controller which is like another processor) has access to
the data bus and can transfer the data in and out of the memory.
Device management (Structure of an I/O System)
Application I/O control Device Device Hardware

Program system driver controller device
Device management (Allocation Policy)
Allocation Policy is of two kinds

– Dedicated
– Shared
Dedicated – Certain devices can be used in a serial and one-at-a- time

manner. For e.g. printer, tapes etc.
– Disadvantage is that it leads to monopoly.
– Solution is SPOOLing (Simultaneous Peripheral Operations Online)
– Jobs intended to be printed are saved in the disk until the job is completed
– All the saved outputs will be eventually printed
Device management (Allocation Policy)
Shared
Devices are used concurrently by more than one job
Example
– Disk
Issues
– Readers and writers problem
– Mutual exclusion
– Security rights
Computer Network
Introduction to Computer Network
Connecting computers via a communication network
work station mini
microprocessor COMMUNICATION
NETWORK general
purpose
Specific
Expensive
purpose (DSP)
Printer
Complete topology Star topology
SWITCHING
ELEMENT
Ring topology
Linear bus
N nodes
Link
Terminator
OSI Layer model
Deals with the connection and communication among open systems
Has a layered approach which helps in

– Reducing the design complexity of each layer
– Helps in shielding the implementation details of the services offered by each layer
Each layer provides services to the layer above
Different protocols are followed between corresponding layers in Sender and

Receiver
OSI Layer model
Application
7 APPLICATION protocol APPLICATION
Presentation
6 PRESENTATION PRESENTATION
protocol
Session SESSION
5 SESSION protocol
Transport TRANSPORT
4 TRANSPORT
protocol
Network NETWORK packet
3 NETWORK
protocol
Datalink frame
2 DATALINK DATALINK
protocol
Physical
1 PHYSICAL PHYSICAL bit
protocol
Routing devices
Repeaters
Bridges
Routers
Gateway
Network types
Local Area Network (LAN)
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Communication methods
Broadcast communication network
Point-to-point network
Summary
Computer Architecture
System Software
Operating System
– Memory Management
– Process Management
– File Management
– Device Management
Computer Networks
Thank You!

ComputerHW SystemSWCourse Offering

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ComputerHW SystemSWCourse Offering

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Computer Hardware and System

– fundamentals of Computer Architecture

– concepts of System Software

– concepts of Operating Systems

– concepts of Computer Networks.

Andrew S. Tanenbaum: Structured Computer Organization , PHI, 3rd

Silberschatz and Galvin: Operating System Concepts , 4th edition,

Andrew S. Tanenbaum: Computer Networks, PHI, 1991.

Alfred V.Aho, Ravi Sethi, Jeffrey D.Ullman: Compilers -Principles,

Main Memory Hard Disk KeyBoard CD ROM Drive

BUS (Communication channel)

•Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Brain of the computer

– Fetch instructions from memory

Consists of 3 functional units

– Control Unit (CU)

Internal Main Cache Secondary

Memory Memory Memory Memory

Parallel wires that carry several bits at a time

Carries instructions, data, addresses or commands

Control Unit Program Counter

Arithmetic and logic

The execution process of the instruction stored in the memory happens

Basic Computer Architecture

Introduction to the Concepts of System Software

Introduction to Operating System

Application Software System Software

System programs which provide a more convenient environment for program

A program which converts a user’s program written in some language to

Source Program (High level language) Source Program (Assembly language)

Target Program (Object /Exe code ) Target Program (Machine language )

Are system programs

Transfer the control to 1st instruction

Assemble and Go Loader

main sort search count

Linking is the process of combining various pieces of code and data

Linking can be done at compile time, and also at run time

Are system programs that translates an input program in a high level

Checks for errors

Optimizes the code

Prepares the code for execution

Intermediate code generation

Largely dependent on the source language

Independent of the target machine

Comprises the first three phases viz.,

Sometimes the intermediate code generation phase is also included

Dependent on the target machine

Independent of the source language

Includes the last two phases viz.,

Is a systems program that looks at and executes programs on a line-by-line

entire source code needs to be present in memory during execution as a result

Used in test environments as overhead of compilation is not there

Viewed as a Resource Allocator or Resource Manager

Plays an important role as utilization of memory is crucial to the performance of

– Respond to changes in memory demand by individual user jobs

– Prevent unauthorized changes to a user job’s memory region

– Implement allocation and addressing as efficiently as possible

Single Contiguous allocation

Relocatable Partitioned allocation

Simple Paged allocation

User’s Job 50K

Unused 30K New Job Waiting

Fixed Partitioned allocation