Magnetism

A microscopic look
To understand how a magnet works look at it
deeply. Look at the individual atoms.
Do they have any magnetic effect?
Yes, they have because a moving charge has a
magnetic effect.
n an atom magnetic effect may arise due to
1. Effective current loop of electrons in atomic
orbit (orbital Motion of electrons)
2. Electron spin
3. Motion of the nuclei.
Magnetic moments and angular momentum-
1(Orbital Motion)
I
f a charge particle is moving in a
circular orbit (e.g electron around
a nucleus), there is a definite
ratio between the magnetic
moment 3 and angular
momentum
r
;

3
m,q
For any circular
orbit the magnetic
moment 3 is q/2m
times
m
q
J

3
ow can we get it?
Angular momentum is directed perpendicular to the
plane of the orbit and
J=mvr.
Magnetic moment of the same orbit is current times area.
J
m
q
qvr
r A Area
r
v
q I

3
3 6
6
(velocity)
r
;

3
m,q
n case of electron orbiting around the nucleus
This constant is called gyromagnetic ratio.

.4389
m
e
J
el

3
r
;

3
m, -e
Magnetic moments and angular momentum
for eIectron spin
The electron also has a spin rotation about its
own axis, as a result of that spin it has both an
angular momentum and a magnetic moment.
But for reasons that are purely quantum
mechanical, The ratio between 3 to for
electron spin is twice as large as it is for a orbital
motion of the spinning electron:
J
m
e
3
uclear motion
n nuclei there are protons and neutrons
which may move around in some kind of
orbit
and at the same time, like an electron
have an intrinsic spin. Again the
magnetic moment is parallel to the
angular momentum and we have

1a.94r g 3:.lear i8 g J
m
e
g
p

3
hat happens in a real atom?
n any atom, several electrons and some
combination of spin and orbital rotations builds
up the total magnetic moment.
The direction of the angular momentum is
opposite to that of magnetic moment.
Due to the mixture of the contribution from the
orbits and spins the ratio of 3 to J is neither -
e/m nor e/2m.
1a.94r g la3/e .alle/ i8 g
g where J
m
e
g

A A

3
Lande`s equation
- Experimental method
Gyromagnetic eIIect Magnetic resonance
)
) ) )

J J
L L S S J J
g
Measurement of g factor
Ex. f S=1, L=1, J=0,1,2 g= 1, 1.5, 1.5
Summary-2
microscopic Iook of magnetic effect;
1 OrbitaI Motion of eIectrons
2 Spin motion of eIectrons
3 Motion of the nucIei
for reaI atom;
1a.94r g la3/e .alle/ i8 g
g where J
m
e
g

A A

3
g
g
J
m
q
qvr
r A Area
r
v
q I

3
3 6
6
(velocity)
r
;

3
m,q
=3
0
B= 3
0
3
0
M M=/
=3
0
(1+ /) or = 3 3=3
0
(1+ /), 3
r
= 3/ 3
0
=(1+ /)
lassification of Magnetic materials
Diamagnetic: / is negative
(/=-3.6 for Au, -3.2 for g, -0.2X10
-8
for water)
iamagnetic materiaIs:
ndicate the very weak magnetization in the opposite
direction to the applied field. They donot possess permanent
magnetic dipoles. Magnetic dipole moment of the atoms is
zero.
Specifically, an external magnetic field alters the orbital
velocity of electrons around their nuclei, thus changing the
magnetic dipole moment in the direction opposing the
external field.
Paramagnetic substance: / is positive but not very large
(/=2.2X10
-5
for Al, 98 for Mn).
!aramagnetismis a form of magnetism which occurs
only in the presence of an externally applied magnetic
field.
Paramagnetic materials are attracted to magnetic
fields. The force of attraction generated by the applied
field is linear in the field strength and rather weak.
Paramagnets do not retain any magnetization in the
absence of an externally applied magnetic field,
because thermal motion causes the spins to become
randomly oriented without it.
Magnetization will drop to zero when the applied field
is removed. Even in the presence of the field there is
only a small induced magnetization because only a
small fraction of the spins will be oriented by the field.
Ferromagnetic: / is positive and very large (of the order
of 10
5
).
*** All the above values of / are in cm
-3
Spontaneous
Magnetization
et Zero
Magnetization
et
Magnetization
Ferromagnetic
Anti-ferromagnetic
Ferrimagnetic