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Unit 1 Origins of Microbiology Microbiology in the 20th century Unit 2 Organization of microbial cells Procaryotic cell structure eg. bacteria Eucaryotic cell structure eg. Fungi Archaebacteria Evolutionery aspects Unit 3 Outlines of microbial groups Eucaryotic protists (algae, fungi ,Protozoa , Myxomycetes) Viruses
Unit 4 Microbial Nutrition
2h
4h
6h
3h .. 2h
2h
4h
Unit 7 Microbial Metabolism . Catabolic energy generating reactions Anabolic energy requiring biosynthetic reactions Unit 8 Bacterial Classification Unit 9 Role of Microbes in the Environment Unit 10 Unit 11 Unit 12 -do-do in the Industry in Food
2h
2h 2h 2h 2h
Assessment
Midterm Quiz Assignment End Sem Exam = 35 marks = 15 marks = 50 marks
Total =
100 marks
References Professional Journals, Series books etc in Microbiology Annual Review of Microbiology /Biochemistry (through Proquest) Nature Microbiology Reviews Current Opinion in Microbiology ,Cell Biology ,Genetics ,etc Trends in Microbiology /Biotechnology Encylopaedia of Environmental Microbiology Springer- Verlag Series on- Aplied Microbial Technology -Advances in Biochem Engg &Botechnology
1664
describe the fruiting structures of molds. He also coined the term "cell" when using a microscope to look at cork, as the dead plant material in cork reminded him of a jail cell. 1673 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch tradesman and skilled lens maker, is the first to describe microbes in detail.
1872
1872
Brefeld reports the growth of fungal colonies from single spores on gelatin and the German botanist Shroeter grows
pigmented bacterial colonies on slices of potato. Robert Koch develops methods for staining bacteria, photographing and preparing permanent visual records on slides. Koch develops solid culture media and the methods for obtaining pure cultures of bacteria.
1877
1881
1882
Angelina Fannie and Walther Hesse in Koch's laboratory develop the use of agar as a support medium for solid culture
Hans Christian Gram develops a dye system for identifying bacteria [the Gram stain]. First report of the petri plate by Julius R. Petri.
analyzing water samples using the most probable number, multiple-tube fermentation test.
1877
1840s Ignaz Semmelweis shows that hand washing between visiting mothers can prevent childbirth fever.
1854 Dr. John Snow studies a cholera outbreak in the Soho neighborhood of London and determines it was caused by contaminated water at the Broad Street pump. His methods found the field of epidemiology.
1857 1867
1873
Gerhard Henrik Armauer Hansen discovers the leprosy bacillus (Mycobacterium leprae) and demonstrates that leprosy is a contagious disease and not inherited as was the popular belief. In many countries leprosy is still called Hansens disease in his honor.
Robert Koch and Cohn identify a bacterium, Bacillus anthracis as the cause of anthrax and publish their research. Koch isolates the tubercule bacillus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Koch puts forth his postulates, which are standards for proving that a microorganism is the cause of a disease.
1884- Many diseases are seen to be associated with pathogens due presen to the application of Koch's postulates. t 1886 John Brown Buist is the first person to see a virus.
1892
1899 19151917
1918
In the fall of 1918, as World War I was ending, an influenza pandemic of unprecedented virulence swept the globe, leaving some 40 million dead in its wake. A search for the responsible agent began in earnest that year, leading to the first isolation of an influenza virus by 1930.
1957
responsible for the wasting disease kuru. In subsequent years several diseases are shown to be caused by slow viruses
Event
Physicians in India and China realize that the liquid from the pustules of a smallpox victim, when scratched on the skin of a healthy patient, would most often cause mild disease. This intentional infection, termed variolation, would also give life-long protection against the illness.
1721
1796 1884
Edward Jenner uses cowpox to immunize against smallpox. Ilya Ilich Metchnikoff demonstrates that certain body cells
move to damaged areas of the body where they consume bacteria and other foreign particles. He calls the process phagocytosis. This is the beginning of the science of immunology, the study of the immune system.
1885
Paul Ehrlich proposes that certain chemicals affect bacterial cells and begins a search one that can treat syphilis.
1886
Theobald Smith and D. E. Salmon develop a treatment for hog cholera by injecting killed hog cholera microorganisms into pigeons and demonstrate immunity to subsequent administration of a live microbial culture of cholera.
1891
Paul Ehrlich shows that antibodies are responsible for part of immunity.
1897
1897
1912
Paul Ehrlich announces the discovery of a cure for syphilis, the first specific chemotherapeutic agent for a bacterial disease. Alexander Fleming publishes the first paper describing penicillin. Gerhard J. Domagk uses, Prontosil, a chemically synthesized antimetabolite, to kill Streptococcus in mice.
Max Theiler produces a vaccine against yellow fever by passaging the virus through mice to weaken it.
Howard Florey and Ernest Chain produce an extract of penicillin and show it can kill bacteria in animals.
Ernest Chain and E.P. Abraham describe a substance from E. coli that can inactivate penicillin. This demonstrates how rapidly bacteria can become resistant to an antibiotics.
1940
Selman Waksman and H. Boyd Woodruff discover actinomycin, the first antibiotic obtained pure from a group of
soil organisms, the actinomycetes. In subsequent years many antibiotics are isolated from this group including tetracycline and streptomycin.
1941
1942
Sergei Winogradsky studies Beggiatoa and establishes the concept of autotrophy. Martinus Beijerinck develops the technique of enrichment culture. Winogradsky discovers the organisms responsible for nitrification in soil, which is of great importance in agriculture because nitrogen is a limiting nutrient in the soil. Martinus Beijerinck obtains the first pure culture of sulfuroxidizing bacterium, Thiobacillus denitrificans. Cornelius Johan Koning suggests that fungi are critical for the decomposition of organic matter.
1904 1904
1909
Sigurd Orla-Jensen proposes the use of physiological characteristics of for the classification of bacteria. He later publishes a monograph on lactic acid bacteria that establishes the criteria for assignment.
The Society of American Bacteriologists presents a report on the characterization and classification of Bacterial Types that becomes the basis for Bergey's manual in 1923. Brian McCarthy and E. T. Bolton describe a method to compare genetic material from different species using hybridization. Using this technique it is possible to quantitatively compare the relatedness of the two species.
1920
1961
1965
Emile Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling publish "Molecules as documents of evolutionary history" making a compelling case for the use of molecular sequences of biological molecules to determine evolutionary relationships.
Don Brenner and colleagues establish a more reliable basis for the classification of clinical isolates among members of the Enterobacteriaceae. They use nucleic acid reassociation, where DNA of one organism is allowed to hybridize with another organism. This technique is used to help define a species.
1969
1977
Carl Woese uses ribosomal RNA analysis to identify a third form of life, the Archea, whose genetic makeup is distinct from but related to both Bacteria and Eucarya. Holger Jannasch discovers abundant life at the bottom of the ocean near deep sea hydrothermal vents. The entire system is dependent upon sulfur oxidizing microorganisms. Light and photosynthesis does not drive the process.
1977
1982
Karl Stetter isolates hydrothermophilic microbes (Archaea) that can grow at 105C. Redefining the upper temperature that life can exist at. Gary Olsen, Carl Woese and Ross Overbeek summarize the state of phylogeny in prokaryotes. This causes scientists to rethink the classification of life and emphasizes the importance of microbes.
1994
1944
Albert Schatz, E. Bugie, and Selman Waksman discover streptomycin, a very effective drug against tuberculosis. W. H. Feldman and H. C. Hinshaw at the Mayo Clinic successfully treat tuberculosis with streptomycin. The Soviet delegation to the World Health Organization proposes a vaccination effort to eradicate smallpox. The program finally begins in 1967. Ali Maow Maalin, age 23 of Somalia, was the last known natural victim of smallpox. Smallpox is declared to be eliminated. This is the only example of a microbial disease that has been wiped from the face of the earth. (However, the recent specter of bioterrorism and the smallpox stocks kept by several governments make new epidemics of smallpox still possible.)
1944
1957
1977
1979
1952 1953
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase suggest that only DNA is needed for viral replication. Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and James Watson describe the structure of DNA.
1954
1954
Paul Zemecnik develops a cell-free system for translation using rat liver
Francis Crick, Sydney Brenner, and colleagues propose the existence of RNA that helps to transfer the information in DNA into protein (tRNA). Paul Zemecnik discovers tRNA in his cell-free system Francois Jacob and Elie Wollman show that the chromosome of E. coli is circular. Peter Mitchell proposes the chemiosmotic theory in which a molecular process is coupled to the transport of protons across a biological membrane. He argues that this principle explains ATP synthesis, solute accumulations or expulsions, and cell movement.
1959 1960
Arthur Pardee, Francois Jacob, and Jacques Monod show that lactose induces beta -galactosidase the catabolic enzyme begins the degradation of the sugar.
Arthur Kornberg demonstrates DNA synthesis in cell-free bacterial extracts and later shows a specific enzyme complex catalyzes the synthesis of DNA. Francois Jacob, David Perrin, Carmen Sanchez and Jacques Monod propose a mechanism for the for control of bacterial gene expression in an organization they call the operon. Paul Zemecnik and Robert Lamberg develop a bacterial cell-free system using E. coli
1960
1960
1961
Marshall Nirenberg and J.H. Matthaei observe that a synthetic polynucleotide, composed only of a string of the base uracil, directs the synthesis of a polypeptide composed only of phenylalanine. This begins the quest to unravel the genetic code that translates DNA into protein.
1961
Sydney Brenner, Francois Jacob and Matthew Meselson show that ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis and that RNA carries messages from the DNA to the ribosome. Lynn Margulis proposes that endosymbiosis has led to the generation of mitochondria and chloroplasts from bacterial progenitors.
1968
1970
Howard Temin and David Baltimore independently discover reverse transcriptase, a radically different way to alter genetic information in cells. Thomas Cech and Sidney Altman independently show that RNA, and not just protein, can serve directly as a reaction catalyst.
1975
Event
Theodor Escherich isolates a microbe from the colon that is later given the name Escherichia coli in his honor. This microbe later becomes the workhorse of molecular biology.
1897
Edward Buchner helps launch the field of enzymology by developing a cell extract from yeast that is able to ferment sugar to alcohol.
Salvador Luria and Mary Human, and independently Jean Weigle, describe sensitivity in bacteriophage imposed by the host on which it was grown. The viruses are restricted to only grow well on specific strains of bacteria. This later leads to study of bacterial systems of restriction and modification, and eventually the discovery of restriction enzymes. O. Sawada and others demonstrate that antibiotic resistance can be transferred between Shigella strains and Escherichia coli strains by plasmids
1952
1959
1966 1967
Jon Beckwith and Ethan Signer move the lac region of E. coli into another microorganism to demonstrate genetic control. It is quickly realized that chromosomes could be redesigned and genes moved. Waclaw Szybalski and William Summers develop the technique of DNA-RNA hybridization (mixing nucleic acids together and allowing them to base pair) to investigate the bacteriophage T7. This technique finds wide use in many experiments. Thomas Brock identifies Thermus aquaticus, a bacterium that grows at 85 C. Heat-stable DNA polymerase is later isolated and used in PCR. Investigation of this organism also leads to the discovery of the domain Archaea. Werner Arber shows that bacterial cells have enzymes capable of modify DNA by adding methyl groups at cytosines and adenosines. This methylation helps the cell identify its own DNA. Accompanying nucleases recognize these sites and cut the DNA if it is not methylated.
1967
1967
1970 1972
Hamilton Smith and Kent W. Wilcox describe the action of restriction enzymes, discovered by Arber, by the purification of one of these enzymes from Haemophilus influenzae. Joan Mertz and Ronald W. Davis establish that the RI restriction enzyme from Escherichia coli cuts at a specific site on the DNA. They also reveal that the cleaved ends of the DNA are complementary, opening the way for cloning. Paul Berg creates the first recombinant DNA molecule from viral and bacterial DNA.
1972
1973
19751976
Stanley Cohen, Annie Chang, Robert Helling, and Herbert Boyer develop the process of gene cloning.
The Asilomar Conference is convened to discuss possible problems associated with gene cloning. A one-year moratorium is suggested, as well as guidelines for cloning research and for genetic engineering. Walter Gilbert and Fred Sanger independently develop methods for determining the sequence of DNA.
1977
1980 1982
The U. S. Supreme Court rules that microorganisms altered in the laboratory can be patented !!! U. S. Pharmaceutical manufacturer Eli Lilly markets the first genetically-engineered human insulin.
1983
Jeff Schell and Marc Van Montagu, Mary-Dell Chilton and colleagues move genes into plants.
1988
Kary Mullis uses a heat-stable enzyme from Thermus aquaticus to establish PCR technology.
1992
The entire sequence of one of the sixteen chromosomes of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is determined.
1995
Craig Venter, Hamilton Smith, Claire Fraser, and colleagues at TIGR elucidate the first complete genome sequence of a microorganism, Haemophilus influenzae. In the ensuing years the Institute for Genome Research and collaborators have produced sequences for dozens of microbes including many important pathogens and those of industrial or environmental importance.
1995
C. J. Peters, V. E. Chizhikov, S. F. Spiropoulou, S. P. Morzunov, and M. C. Monroe report the complete genome of the Hantavirus Sin Nobra NMH10, detected in autopsy tissue of a patient who died of Hantavius pulmonary syndrome.
2000
The human genome project begun in 1990 finished a working draft of the entire human genome.
Unforgettable Names
Robert Hooke Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Redi Needham Spallanzani Louis Pasteur
Thomas Huxley
Tyndall Jennings Hansen Robert Koch
M.H.Mcrady
Paul Ehrlich Lister Ivanowsky Twort and DHerelle Gajdusek Metchnikoff Alexander Fleming Florey and Chain Waksman
Beijerinck Winogradsky