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BT 201 MICROBIOLOGY Syllabus

Unit 1 Origins of Microbiology Microbiology in the 20th century Unit 2 Organization of microbial cells Procaryotic cell structure eg. bacteria Eucaryotic cell structure eg. Fungi Archaebacteria Evolutionery aspects Unit 3 Outlines of microbial groups Eucaryotic protists (algae, fungi ,Protozoa , Myxomycetes) Viruses
Unit 4 Microbial Nutrition

2h
4h

6h

3h .. 2h

Unit 5 Effect of physical and chemical agents on growth

Unit 6 Microbial growth

2h
4h

Unit 7 Microbial Metabolism . Catabolic energy generating reactions Anabolic energy requiring biosynthetic reactions Unit 8 Bacterial Classification Unit 9 Role of Microbes in the Environment Unit 10 Unit 11 Unit 12 -do-do in the Industry in Food

2h
2h 2h 2h 2h

- do- in Health and Diseases

Assessment
Midterm Quiz Assignment End Sem Exam = 35 marks = 15 marks = 50 marks

Total =

100 marks

References Professional Journals, Series books etc in Microbiology Annual Review of Microbiology /Biochemistry (through Proquest) Nature Microbiology Reviews Current Opinion in Microbiology ,Cell Biology ,Genetics ,etc Trends in Microbiology /Biotechnology Encylopaedia of Environmental Microbiology Springer- Verlag Series on- Aplied Microbial Technology -Advances in Biochem Engg &Botechnology

Mycota series Biotechnology by Rehm a 21 volume series in Text Book Section

Suggested Text Books

1. Brock Biology of Microorganisms best !


2. Microbiology by Prescott 3. Microbiology by Schlegel

4. Microbial world by Stanier


5. Microbiology -Talaroa with a cd called Microbes in Motion 6. Microbiology by Tortora with a CD 8. Instant Notes in Microbiology by Paget and Killington 10. Microbiology by Anantharaman more medical oriented

1. The development of early techniques in microbiology.


Year Event

1664

Robert Hooke was the first to use a microscope to

describe the fruiting structures of molds. He also coined the term "cell" when using a microscope to look at cork, as the dead plant material in cork reminded him of a jail cell. 1673 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch tradesman and skilled lens maker, is the first to describe microbes in detail.

1872

Ferdinand Julius Cohn publishes landmark paper on


bacteria and the cycling of elements. In it is an early classification scheme that uses the name Bacillus.

1872

Brefeld reports the growth of fungal colonies from single spores on gelatin and the German botanist Shroeter grows
pigmented bacterial colonies on slices of potato. Robert Koch develops methods for staining bacteria, photographing and preparing permanent visual records on slides. Koch develops solid culture media and the methods for obtaining pure cultures of bacteria.

1877

1881

1882

Angelina Fannie and Walther Hesse in Koch's laboratory develop the use of agar as a support medium for solid culture

1884 1887 1915

Hans Christian Gram develops a dye system for identifying bacteria [the Gram stain]. First report of the petri plate by Julius R. Petri.

M. H. McCrady establishes a quantitative approach for

analyzing water samples using the most probable number, multiple-tube fermentation test.

2. Important events in the spontaneous generation debate


Year 1668 1745 Event Francesco Redi attacks spontaneous generation and disproves it for large organisms John Needham adds chick broth to a flask and boils it, lets it cool and waits. Microbes grow and he proposes it as an example of spontaneous generation. Lazzaro Spallanzani repeats Needham's experiment, but removes all the air from the flask. No growth occurs. Louis Pasteur's swan-neck flasks show that spontaneous generation does not occur. Thomas H. Huxley gives his "Biogenesis and Abiogenesis" lecture. The speech offered powerful support for Pasteur's claim to have experimentally disproved spontaneous generation. John Tyndall publishes his method for fractional sterilization, showing the existence of heat-resistant bacterial spores.

1768 1859 1870

1877

3. Important events in the discovery of the cause of disease.


Year Event

1840s Ignaz Semmelweis shows that hand washing between visiting mothers can prevent childbirth fever.
1854 Dr. John Snow studies a cholera outbreak in the Soho neighborhood of London and determines it was caused by contaminated water at the Broad Street pump. His methods found the field of epidemiology.

1857 1867

Louis Pasteur develops the germ theory.

Joseph Lister develops the use of phenic acid (phenol) to


treat wounds and for antiseptic surgery.

1873

Gerhard Henrik Armauer Hansen discovers the leprosy bacillus (Mycobacterium leprae) and demonstrates that leprosy is a contagious disease and not inherited as was the popular belief. In many countries leprosy is still called Hansens disease in his honor.
Robert Koch and Cohn identify a bacterium, Bacillus anthracis as the cause of anthrax and publish their research. Koch isolates the tubercule bacillus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Koch puts forth his postulates, which are standards for proving that a microorganism is the cause of a disease.

1876 1882 1884

1884- Many diseases are seen to be associated with pathogens due presen to the application of Koch's postulates. t 1886 John Brown Buist is the first person to see a virus.

1892

Dmitri Ivanowski publishes the first evidence of the

filterability of a pathogenic agent, the virus of tobacco mosaic disease(TMV)


1899 Martinus Beijerinck recognizes the unique nature of Ivanowski's discovery. He coins the term contagium vivum fluidum - a contagious living fluid. Friederich Loeffler and Paul Frosch discovered that foot and mouth disease is also caused by a filterable agent. Frederick Twort and Felix dHerelle discover bacterial viruses.

1899 19151917

1918

In the fall of 1918, as World War I was ending, an influenza pandemic of unprecedented virulence swept the globe, leaving some 40 million dead in its wake. A search for the responsible agent began in earnest that year, leading to the first isolation of an influenza virus by 1930.

1957

D. Carleton Gajdusek proposes that a slow virus is

responsible for the wasting disease kuru. In subsequent years several diseases are shown to be caused by slow viruses

(later renamed prions) including mad cow disease.

4. Treatment and prevention of disease.


Year 1100

Event

Physicians in India and China realize that the liquid from the pustules of a smallpox victim, when scratched on the skin of a healthy patient, would most often cause mild disease. This intentional infection, termed variolation, would also give life-long protection against the illness.

1721

Lady Mary Wortley Montgue, wife of the ambassador to the


Ottoman Empire, introduces variolation to Europe.

1796 1884

Edward Jenner uses cowpox to immunize against smallpox. Ilya Ilich Metchnikoff demonstrates that certain body cells

move to damaged areas of the body where they consume bacteria and other foreign particles. He calls the process phagocytosis. This is the beginning of the science of immunology, the study of the immune system.

1885

Paul Ehrlich proposes that certain chemicals affect bacterial cells and begins a search one that can treat syphilis.

1886

Theobald Smith and D. E. Salmon develop a treatment for hog cholera by injecting killed hog cholera microorganisms into pigeons and demonstrate immunity to subsequent administration of a live microbial culture of cholera.

1891

Paul Ehrlich shows that antibodies are responsible for part of immunity.

1897

Almwroth Wright and David Sample develop an effective


vaccine against typhoid fever using killed cells of Salmonella typhi.

1897

Waldemar Haffkine develops a vaccine against the plague.

1912

Paul Ehrlich announces the discovery of a cure for syphilis, the first specific chemotherapeutic agent for a bacterial disease. Alexander Fleming publishes the first paper describing penicillin. Gerhard J. Domagk uses, Prontosil, a chemically synthesized antimetabolite, to kill Streptococcus in mice.
Max Theiler produces a vaccine against yellow fever by passaging the virus through mice to weaken it.

1929 1935 1938 1940 1940

Howard Florey and Ernest Chain produce an extract of penicillin and show it can kill bacteria in animals.
Ernest Chain and E.P. Abraham describe a substance from E. coli that can inactivate penicillin. This demonstrates how rapidly bacteria can become resistant to an antibiotics.

1940

Selman Waksman and H. Boyd Woodruff discover actinomycin, the first antibiotic obtained pure from a group of
soil organisms, the actinomycetes. In subsequent years many antibiotics are isolated from this group including tetracycline and streptomycin.

1941

Charles Fletcher demonstrates that penicillin is non-toxic to

human volunteers, by injecting a police officer suffering with a lethal infection.

1942

Selman Waksman suggests the word "antibiotic" to describe


the class of compounds produced by one microorganism that inhibit or kill other microorganisms.

5. Significant Events in Environmental Microbiology Event

Year 1887 1888 1891

Significant Events in Environmental Microbiology.

Sergei Winogradsky studies Beggiatoa and establishes the concept of autotrophy. Martinus Beijerinck develops the technique of enrichment culture. Winogradsky discovers the organisms responsible for nitrification in soil, which is of great importance in agriculture because nitrogen is a limiting nutrient in the soil. Martinus Beijerinck obtains the first pure culture of sulfuroxidizing bacterium, Thiobacillus denitrificans. Cornelius Johan Koning suggests that fungi are critical for the decomposition of organic matter.

1904 1904

1909

Sigurd Orla-Jensen proposes the use of physiological characteristics of for the classification of bacteria. He later publishes a monograph on lactic acid bacteria that establishes the criteria for assignment.
The Society of American Bacteriologists presents a report on the characterization and classification of Bacterial Types that becomes the basis for Bergey's manual in 1923. Brian McCarthy and E. T. Bolton describe a method to compare genetic material from different species using hybridization. Using this technique it is possible to quantitatively compare the relatedness of the two species.

1920

1961

1965

Emile Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling publish "Molecules as documents of evolutionary history" making a compelling case for the use of molecular sequences of biological molecules to determine evolutionary relationships.
Don Brenner and colleagues establish a more reliable basis for the classification of clinical isolates among members of the Enterobacteriaceae. They use nucleic acid reassociation, where DNA of one organism is allowed to hybridize with another organism. This technique is used to help define a species.

1969

1977

Carl Woese uses ribosomal RNA analysis to identify a third form of life, the Archea, whose genetic makeup is distinct from but related to both Bacteria and Eucarya. Holger Jannasch discovers abundant life at the bottom of the ocean near deep sea hydrothermal vents. The entire system is dependent upon sulfur oxidizing microorganisms. Light and photosynthesis does not drive the process.

1977

1982

Karl Stetter isolates hydrothermophilic microbes (Archaea) that can grow at 105C. Redefining the upper temperature that life can exist at. Gary Olsen, Carl Woese and Ross Overbeek summarize the state of phylogeny in prokaryotes. This causes scientists to rethink the classification of life and emphasizes the importance of microbes.

1994

1944

Albert Schatz, E. Bugie, and Selman Waksman discover streptomycin, a very effective drug against tuberculosis. W. H. Feldman and H. C. Hinshaw at the Mayo Clinic successfully treat tuberculosis with streptomycin. The Soviet delegation to the World Health Organization proposes a vaccination effort to eradicate smallpox. The program finally begins in 1967. Ali Maow Maalin, age 23 of Somalia, was the last known natural victim of smallpox. Smallpox is declared to be eliminated. This is the only example of a microbial disease that has been wiped from the face of the earth. (However, the recent specter of bioterrorism and the smallpox stocks kept by several governments make new epidemics of smallpox still possible.)

1944

1957

1977

1979

6. Significant Events in Learning about the Molecules of Life.


Year 1928 1941 1943 1944 1946 1952 Event Frederick Griffith discovers transformation in bacteria and establishes the foundation of molecular genetics. George Beadle and Edward Tatum develop the one-gene oneenzyme hypothesis. Salvador Luria and Max Delbruck demonstrate that inheritance in bacteria follows Darwinian principles. Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty show that DNA is the hereditary material. Joshua Lederberg and Edward L. Tatum discover a second method of gene transfer in bacteria: conjugation. Joshua Lederberg and Norton Zinder find a third method of DNA transfer in bacteria using bacteriophage: transduction.

1952 1953

Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase suggest that only DNA is needed for viral replication. Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and James Watson describe the structure of DNA.

1954
1954

Paul Zemecnik develops a cell-free system for translation using rat liver
Francis Crick, Sydney Brenner, and colleagues propose the existence of RNA that helps to transfer the information in DNA into protein (tRNA). Paul Zemecnik discovers tRNA in his cell-free system Francois Jacob and Elie Wollman show that the chromosome of E. coli is circular. Peter Mitchell proposes the chemiosmotic theory in which a molecular process is coupled to the transport of protons across a biological membrane. He argues that this principle explains ATP synthesis, solute accumulations or expulsions, and cell movement.

1956 1957 1959

1959 1960

Arthur Pardee, Francois Jacob, and Jacques Monod show that lactose induces beta -galactosidase the catabolic enzyme begins the degradation of the sugar.
Arthur Kornberg demonstrates DNA synthesis in cell-free bacterial extracts and later shows a specific enzyme complex catalyzes the synthesis of DNA. Francois Jacob, David Perrin, Carmen Sanchez and Jacques Monod propose a mechanism for the for control of bacterial gene expression in an organization they call the operon. Paul Zemecnik and Robert Lamberg develop a bacterial cell-free system using E. coli

1960

1960

1961

Marshall Nirenberg and J.H. Matthaei observe that a synthetic polynucleotide, composed only of a string of the base uracil, directs the synthesis of a polypeptide composed only of phenylalanine. This begins the quest to unravel the genetic code that translates DNA into protein.

1961

Sydney Brenner, Francois Jacob and Matthew Meselson show that ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis and that RNA carries messages from the DNA to the ribosome. Lynn Margulis proposes that endosymbiosis has led to the generation of mitochondria and chloroplasts from bacterial progenitors.

1968

1970

Howard Temin and David Baltimore independently discover reverse transcriptase, a radically different way to alter genetic information in cells. Thomas Cech and Sidney Altman independently show that RNA, and not just protein, can serve directly as a reaction catalyst.

1975

7. Events in understanding the genome.


Year 1885

Event

Theodor Escherich isolates a microbe from the colon that is later given the name Escherichia coli in his honor. This microbe later becomes the workhorse of molecular biology.

1897

Edward Buchner helps launch the field of enzymology by developing a cell extract from yeast that is able to ferment sugar to alcohol.
Salvador Luria and Mary Human, and independently Jean Weigle, describe sensitivity in bacteriophage imposed by the host on which it was grown. The viruses are restricted to only grow well on specific strains of bacteria. This later leads to study of bacterial systems of restriction and modification, and eventually the discovery of restriction enzymes. O. Sawada and others demonstrate that antibiotic resistance can be transferred between Shigella strains and Escherichia coli strains by plasmids

1952

1959

1966 1967

Jon Beckwith and Ethan Signer move the lac region of E. coli into another microorganism to demonstrate genetic control. It is quickly realized that chromosomes could be redesigned and genes moved. Waclaw Szybalski and William Summers develop the technique of DNA-RNA hybridization (mixing nucleic acids together and allowing them to base pair) to investigate the bacteriophage T7. This technique finds wide use in many experiments. Thomas Brock identifies Thermus aquaticus, a bacterium that grows at 85 C. Heat-stable DNA polymerase is later isolated and used in PCR. Investigation of this organism also leads to the discovery of the domain Archaea. Werner Arber shows that bacterial cells have enzymes capable of modify DNA by adding methyl groups at cytosines and adenosines. This methylation helps the cell identify its own DNA. Accompanying nucleases recognize these sites and cut the DNA if it is not methylated.

1967

1967

1970 1972

Hamilton Smith and Kent W. Wilcox describe the action of restriction enzymes, discovered by Arber, by the purification of one of these enzymes from Haemophilus influenzae. Joan Mertz and Ronald W. Davis establish that the RI restriction enzyme from Escherichia coli cuts at a specific site on the DNA. They also reveal that the cleaved ends of the DNA are complementary, opening the way for cloning. Paul Berg creates the first recombinant DNA molecule from viral and bacterial DNA.

1972

1973
19751976

Stanley Cohen, Annie Chang, Robert Helling, and Herbert Boyer develop the process of gene cloning.
The Asilomar Conference is convened to discuss possible problems associated with gene cloning. A one-year moratorium is suggested, as well as guidelines for cloning research and for genetic engineering. Walter Gilbert and Fred Sanger independently develop methods for determining the sequence of DNA.

1977

1980 1982

The U. S. Supreme Court rules that microorganisms altered in the laboratory can be patented !!! U. S. Pharmaceutical manufacturer Eli Lilly markets the first genetically-engineered human insulin.

1983

Jeff Schell and Marc Van Montagu, Mary-Dell Chilton and colleagues move genes into plants.

1988

Kary Mullis uses a heat-stable enzyme from Thermus aquaticus to establish PCR technology.

1992

The entire sequence of one of the sixteen chromosomes of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is determined.

1995

Craig Venter, Hamilton Smith, Claire Fraser, and colleagues at TIGR elucidate the first complete genome sequence of a microorganism, Haemophilus influenzae. In the ensuing years the Institute for Genome Research and collaborators have produced sequences for dozens of microbes including many important pathogens and those of industrial or environmental importance.

1995

C. J. Peters, V. E. Chizhikov, S. F. Spiropoulou, S. P. Morzunov, and M. C. Monroe report the complete genome of the Hantavirus Sin Nobra NMH10, detected in autopsy tissue of a patient who died of Hantavius pulmonary syndrome.

2000

The human genome project begun in 1990 finished a working draft of the entire human genome.

Unforgettable Names

Robert Hooke Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Redi Needham Spallanzani Louis Pasteur

Thomas Huxley
Tyndall Jennings Hansen Robert Koch

M.H.Mcrady
Paul Ehrlich Lister Ivanowsky Twort and DHerelle Gajdusek Metchnikoff Alexander Fleming Florey and Chain Waksman

Hesse Hans Christian Gram Julius Petri

Beijerinck Winogradsky

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