REGULATION OF RESPIRATION

Objectives
Neural regulation – briefly - respiratory centre in brainstem
Chemical regulation – important
Reflex regulation due to stimulation of lung stretch receptors
& other receptors - nice to know
NEURAL CONTROL OF BREATHING

Normal rate of
breathing at rest in
adults ~ 12 -18
times/min.

Most of the time,

breathing is automatic

-due to spontaneous
rhythmic discharge of
neurons in resp.
centre in brainstem to
inspiratory muscles
 NEURAL CONTROL OF BREATHING

Respiratory centre in brainstem

Medullary resp. centres
- consist of sev. grps of neurons
(i) Dorsal respiratory group (DRG)
- consists mainly of inspiratory neurons
(discharge during inspiration)
- set the basic respiratory rhythm
(ii) Pre-Botzinger complex
- pacemaker neurons → determine rate at
which DRG inspiratory neurons
rhythmically fire
(iii) Ventral respiratory group (VRG)
(inactive during normal quiet breathing
– neurons active when demand for
ventilation

Human Physiology
Lauralee Sherwood
 SIMPLIFIED
EXPLANATION

Inspiratory neurons
in DRG discharge
rhythmically
NEURAL CONTROL OF BREATHING

Breathing stops if the S.C

is transected above the
origin of the phrenic nerves
that supply the diaphragm
(above C3)
 RESPIRATORY CENTRE IN
BRAINSTEM
•Pons respiratory centres
•Medullary resp. centre generates
the basic resp. rhythm but the
pontine resp. centres exert ‘fine-
tuning’ influences over the
medullary resp. centre to help
produce normal, smooth
inspiration & expiration
10
•Pneumotaxic centre sends
impulses to medullary neurons
that help “switch-off” inspiratory,
limiting duration of inspiration
•The apneustic centre – actual
role not known - may prevent
inspiratory neurons from being
switched off
NEURAL CONTROL OF BREATHING

Voluntary control of
breathing

eg. breath-holding,
voluntary
hyperventilation

-cerebral motor cortex

sends impulses directly
to the motor neurons
that stimulate the resp.
muscles, bypassing the
resp. centre
Respiratory centre in
medulla / brainstem
Many inputs to the resp.
centre → change rate &
depth of breathing



Stretch receptors in the
lungs
Baroreceptors
Receptors in the skin
ovement of limbs & joints
stimulate ventilation (thro’
stim. of proprioceptors eg.
muscle spindle, joint
receptors)
The most important
input are from the
chemoreceptors
- sense changes of
PaCO2, PaO2 & pH of
arterial blood
(chemical factors)
→ changes in vent.

Chemical regulation of
ventilation

- maintain PaO2,
PaCO2 & pH of arterial
blood within normal
range
 2 types of
chemoreceptors:
(i) Peripheral
Glos sophar ynge
chemoreceptors
al ner ve - located in the carotid
Aortic bodies
bodies (at the
bifurcation of the
common carotid
arteries), and in the
aortic bodies in the
aortic arch

Va gus Impulses from the chemoR

ner ve in the aortic bodies are
sent to the resp. centre
thro’ vagus nerves &
from the carotid bodies
thro’ the
glossopharyngealnerve
s
 2 types of
chemoreceptors:
Glos sophar ynge
al ner ve
Aortic bodies
(ii) Central
chemoreceptors
- located bilaterally in
the ventrolateral
medulla (near the
med. resp. centre)
Va gus
ner ve
 Peripheral chemoR
Glos sophar ynge
al ner ve stimulated by:
Aortic bodies
 in PaO2 of  60 mm
Hg

↓ pH of arterial blood
Va gus
ner ve t
t



t

CHEMICAL REGULATION OF VENTILATION

Pulmonary / minute
ventilation (VE)
-volume of air breathed in
or out per minute
= tidal volume (TV) X
resp. rate

At rest, pulmonary
ventilation ~ 6 -7 L/min
(~ 0.5L X 12)




CHEMICAL REGULATION OF VENTILATION

 






Mechanism by which                
              
   
↑ 

in the
medulla






 



CO2 readily diffuses across the blood-brain

barrier

 ↑ 

 

Stimulation of both chemoR ↑ stimulation

of the medullary respiratory centre
which causes ↑ VA (↑ depth & rate of
breathing
→ 

a
CHEMICAL REGULATION OF VENTILATION





 


stimulation of medullary
resp. centre


CHEMICAL REGULATION OF VENTILATION



 

CHEMICAL REGULATION OF VENTILATION

Too low
PaO2 can
depress
resp. 

 

Mechanism of how low PaO2 (< 60 mm Hg) stimulates ventilation

eg. high altitude,

(hypoxaemia) pulmonary diseases
Anaemia& moderate CO poisoning
→ PaO2 normal
- peripheral chemoRare not
stimulated & ventilation is not
stimulated

Stim. of medullary respiratory

(in the carotid bodies & centre
aortic bodies → ↑
impulses in the
glossopharyngeal &
vagus nerves to resp.
centre)
Hyperventilation at high
altitude → 
+ stimulates
 ↓↓ PaO2 (
Glos sophar ynge 
al ner ve 
Aortic bodies



 

Va gus  
ner ve 

Anaemia & moderate

CO poisoning
PaO2 normal
- peripheral chemoRare
not stimulated &
ventilation is not
stimulated
Mechanism how an ↑ [H+] / ↓arterial blood pH due to non-
carbonic acids ( eg. lactic acid, ketone bodies (keto acids)
stimulate ventilation
due to lactic
acid, keto acids/ketone bodies

Stimulation of peripheral
chemoR in the carotid bodies

timulation of resp.
centre in medulla




↓ PaCO2

Tends to return
arterial pH
towards normal
 Mechanism how an ↑ [H+] / ↓arterial blood pH due to non-
carbonic acids ( eg. lactic acid, ketone bodies (keto acids)
stimulate ventilation
due to lactic
acid, keto acids/ketone bodies

Stimulation of peripheral
chemoR in the carotid bodies

timulation of resp.
centre in medulla




↓ PaCO2

Tends to return
arterial pH
Why central chemoR not stimulated ?
towards normal
 Mechanism how an ↑ [H+] / ↓arterial blood pH due to non-
carbonic acids ( eg. lactic acid, ketone bodies (keto acids)
stimulate ventilation
due to lactic
acid, keto acids/ketone bodies

Stimulation of peripheral
chemoR in the carotid bodies

timulation of resp.
centre in medulla




↓ PaCO2

Why central chemoR not stimulated ? Tends to return

because the blood-brain barrier is not arterial pH
permeable to H+ towards normal
         
    

↑
↓





↑

↑

Other responses can also occur as a result of peripheral chemoreceptor

stimulation e.g. peripheral vasoconstriction, hypertension, tachycardia
The ventilatory
response to 




The ventilatory
response to CO2 is
reduced by factors
such as sleep,
increasing age,
genetic, drugs


Patients with chronic hypercapnia (& hypoxemia (






 




 
  

   


   




NONCHEMICAL FACTORS THAT REFLEXLY AFFECT VA





-
 
 


-









Movement of limbs & joints
stimulate ventilation through
stim. of proprioceptors














NONCHEMICAL FACTORS THAT REFLEXLY AFFECT VA





→



 


Stimulation of J receptors -
located in the interstitial tissues
between the pulmonary capillaries
& alveoli eg. due to edema of
alveolar walls, pulmonary capillary
congestion → may trigger reflex
response of 

