Synchronous Machines

Synchronous Machines
Synchronous generators or alternators are used to convert
mechanical power derived from steam, gas, or hydraulic-turbine
to ac electric power

Synchronous generators are the primary source of electrical
energy we consume today

Large ac power networks rely almost exclusively on synchronous
generators

Synchronous motors are built in large units compare to induction
motors (Induction motors are cheaper for smaller ratings) and
used for constant speed industrial drives
Construction
Basic parts of a synchronous generator:

Rotor - dc excited winding
Stator - 3-phase winding in which the ac emf is generated

The manner in which the active parts of a synchronous
machine are cooled determines its overall physical size and
structure
Various Types

Salient-pole synchronous machine

Cylindrical or round-rotor synchronous machine

1. Most hydraulic turbines have to turn at low speeds
(between 50 and 300 r/min)

2. A large number of poles are required on the rotor
Hydrogenerator
Turbine
Hydro (water)
D

~

10

m
Non-uniform
air-gap
N
S S
N
d-axis
q-axis
Salient-Pole Synchronous Generator
Salient-Pole Synchronous Generator
Stator
L ~ 10 m
D

~

1

m
Turbine
Steam
Stator
Uniform air-gap
Stator winding
Rotor
Rotor winding
N
S
High speed
3600 r/min

2-pole
1800 r/min

4-pole
Direct-conductor cooling (using
hydrogen or water as coolant)
Rating up to 2000 MVA
Turbogenerator
d-axis
q-axis
Cylindrical-Rotor Synchronous Generator
Cylindrical-Rotor Synchronous Generator
Stator
Cylindrical rotor
Operation Principle
The rotor of the generator is driven by a prime-mover


A dc current is flowing in the rotor winding which
produces a rotating magnetic field within the machine


The rotating magnetic field induces a three-phase
voltage in the stator winding of the generator
Electrical Frequency
Electrical frequency produced is locked or synchronized to
the mechanical speed of rotation of a synchronous
generator:




where f
e
= electrical frequency in Hz
P = number of poles
n
m
= mechanical speed of the rotor, in r/min
120
m
e
n P
f =
Generated Voltage
The generated voltage of a synchronous generator is given by


where | = flux in the machine (function of I
f
)
f
e
= electrical frequency
K
c
= synchronous machine constant






Saturation characteristic of a synchronous generator.
e c
f K E | =
I
f

E
Voltage Regulation

A convenient way to compare the voltage behaviour of two
generators is by their voltage regulation (VR). The VR of a
synchronous generator at a given load, power factor, and at rated
speed is defined as
%
V
V E
VR
fl
fl nl
100

=
Where V
fl
is the full-load terminal voltage, and E
nl
(equal to E
f
)
is the no-load terminal voltage (internal voltage) at rated speed
when the load is removed without changing the field current.
For lagging power factor (PF), VR is fairly positive, for unity
PF, VR is small positive and for leading PF, VR is negative.
Determination of the parameters of the equivalent
circuit from test data
The equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator that has been
derived contains three quantities that must be determined in order
to completely describe the behaviour of a real synchronous
generator:

The saturation characteristic: relationship between I
f
and | (and
therefore between I
f
and E
f
)
The synchronous reactance, X
s
The armature resistance, R
a

The above three quantities could be determined by performing the
following three tests:

Open-circuit test
Short-circuit test
DC test
Open-circuit test
The generator is turned at the rated speed
The terminals are disconnected from all loads, and the field current
is set to zero.
Then the field current is gradually increased in steps, and the
terminal voltage is measured at each step along the way.
It is thus possible to obtain an open-circuit characteristic of a
generator (E
f
or V
t
versus I
f
) from this information


+
V
dc

I
f

V
t

Short-circuit test
Adjust the field current to zero and short-circuit the terminals of
the generator through a set of ammeters.
Record the armature current I
sc
as the field current is increased.
Such a plot is called short-circuit characteristic.
A
A
+
V
dc

I
f

I
sc
then

If the stator is Y-connected, the per phase stator resistance is


If the stator is delta-connected, the per phase stator resistance is
DC Test
The purpose of the DC test is to determine R
a
. A variable DC voltage
source is connected between two stator terminals.
The DC source is adjusted to provide approximately rated stator current,
and the resistance between the two stator leads is determined from the
voltmeter and ammeter readings
DC
DC
DC
V
R
I
=
2
DC
a
R
R =
DC a
R R
2
3
=
Determination of X
s
For a particular field current I
fA
, the internal voltage E
f
(=V
A
) could
be found from the occ and the short-circuit current flow I
sc,A
could
be found from the scc.
Then the synchronous reactance X
s
could be obtained using
I
fA

E
f
or V
t
(V)
Air-gap line
OCC I
sc
(A)
SCC
I
f
(A)
V
rated

V
A

I
sc,B

I
sc, A

I
fB

( )
scA
f A
unsat , s a unsat , s
I
E V
X R Z
=
= + =
2 2
2 2
a unsat , s unsat , s
R Z X =
scA
oc , t
scA
f
unsat , s
I
V
I
E
X = ~
: R
a
is known from the DC test.
Since X
s,unsat
>>R
a
,
X
s
under saturated condition
I
a

E
f

V
t
=0
jX
s

R
a

+

+

E
f

V
t
=0
jI
a
X
s

I
a
R
a

I
a

( )
scB
f rated
sat , s a sat , s
I
E V
X R Z
=
= + =
2 2
At V

=

V
rated
,

2 2
a sat , s sat , s
R Z X =
: R
a
is known from the DC test.
Equivalent circuit and phasor diagram under condition
I
fA

E
f
or V
t
(V)
Air-gap line
OCC
I
sc
(A)
SCC
I
f
(A)
V
rated

V
A

I
sc,B

I
sc, A

I
fB

Short-circuit Ratio
Another parameter used to describe synchronous generators is the
short-circuit ratio (SCR). The SCR of a generator defined as the
ratio of the field current required for the rated voltage at open
circuit to the field current required for the rated armature current
at short circuit. SCR is just the reciprocal of the per unit value of
the saturated synchronous reactance calculated by
| | . u . p in X
I
I
SCR
sat _ s
Iscrated _ f
Vrated _ f
1
=
=
E
f
or V
t
(V)
Air-gap line
OCC
I
sc
(A)
SCC
I
f
(A)
V
rated

I
sc,rated

I
f_V rated
I
f_Isc rated

Parallel operation of synchronous generators
There are several major advantages to operate generators in
parallel:

Several generators can supply a bigger load than one machine
by itself.
Having many generators increases the reliability of the power
system.
It allows one or more generators to be removed for shutdown
or preventive maintenance.
The use of permanent magnet (PM) machines continues
to grow and theres a need for machines with higher
efficiencies and power densities.
Surface Mount Permanent Magnet Machine (SMPM) is a
popular PM machine design due to its simple structure,
easy control and good utilization of the PM material

Basic working principle illustrated
In place of a stator with brushes and a rotating ring, the
effect is achieved as with every sequence two windings are
energized (through multi-phase Inverter controllers ), and the
a rotation occurs (except in this case, the windings are
energized: there are no brushes).

Torque is then generated from the interaction between the
magnetic field (from the stator coils, according to the current
input) and the permanent magnets. The peak torque occurs
when two fields are at 90 to each other and falls off as the
fields move together. To keep the motor running, the
magnetic field should shift along side the rotor, hence the
sequencing.

From everything stated, it can be inferred that the Brushless
DC Motor isnt really a direct current device, but rather
actually a a multi-phase AC motor with position feedback that
can be control like a DC motor.
Distributed and Concentrated Winding
A-
A+
C-
C+
B+
B-
B+
B-
C+
C-
A-
A+
Distributed Winding(DW)
Concentrated Winding(CW)
Advantages of CW
Modular Stator
Structure
Simpler winding
Shorter end turns
Higher packing factor
Lower manufacturing
cost

Disadvantages of CW
More harmonics
Higher torque ripple
Lower winding factor
K
w



Basic working principle illustrated

An animation of
a two pole, 3 phase
Brushless DC Motor
is provided from the
Sensor Magnetics
webpage. From this
animation, the entire
described process
can be viewed in
real time, as well as
step by step.
CD-ROM Motors
A typical sample configuration in
application (additional)
This webpage features some hobbyists tinkering with CD-
Rom Brushless DC Motors
Major applications
Here are some detailed example of DC Brushless Motor
applications:

Industrial automation
Fans (i.e. PC & Ceiling)
Electrical Power Steering
Electric vehicle traction drive
Office automation equipment Servo drives
HVAC systems (air handling equipment)
Refrigerator
Washing machines
Blowers

Comparison (Reference 1)
Comparison (Reference 1)
Stepper motor
General description
An electro-mechanical rotary
Advantages :
an excellent power to weight ratio
minimum rotor inertia
no drift
no starting surge
Constitution :
stator
rotor
Stepper motor
Permanent magnet motor
1- Unipolar stepping motor

Composition :
a rotor : a pair of poles
(north and south)
a stator : 2 coils with
a medium point

Definition of unipolar

Simulation
Stepper motor
Permanent magnet motor
1- Unipolar stepping motor

Composition :
a rotor : a pair of poles
(north and south)
a stator : 2 coils with
a medium point

Definition of unipolar

Simulation
Stepper motor
Variable reluctance motor
Composition :
a rotor : toothed and not magnetize
a stator : composed of teeth

The law of the minimum reluctance

Simulation:
Supply the poles pair after
pair (1 2 3 )

Stepper motor
Hybrid motor
Hybrid motors are hybridization of:
Variable reluctance motor
Permanent magnet motor
And magnetic rotors with teeth
Stepper motor
Applications
Several applications:
Printers
Automated machine tools
Disk drives
and a variety of other applications requiring precise
motions under computer control ( astronomy).