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Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
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Standardized Test Prep
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Chapter 49
Nervous System and Sense Organs
Table of Contents
Section 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses Section 2 Structure of the Nervous System Section 3 Sensory Systems Section 4 Drugs and the Nervous System
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Chapter 49 Objectives
Section 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses
Describe the structure of a neuron. Summarize the electrical and chemical conditions that characterize a resting potential. Outline the electrical and chemical changes that occur during an action potential. Explain the role of neurotransmitters in transmitting a signal across a synapse.
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Chapter 49
Neuron Structure
A neuron, or nerve cell, is made up of a cell body, dendrites, and axons. A cell body is the nucleus of a neuron and most of its organelles. Dendrites extend from the cell body and are covered by a membrane. The axon is a long membrane-bound projection that transmits information away from the cell body in the form of electrical signals.
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Chapter 49 Structure of a Neuron
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Chapter 49
Parts of a Neuron
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Chapter 49
Neuron Structure, continued

The electrical signals that transmit information away from the cell body are called action potentials. The end of an axon is called an axon terminal. Axons are covered by a lipid layer called a myelin sheath. The myelin sheath insulates the neuron which speeds up the transmission of action potentials along the axon.
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Chapter 49
Neuron Structure, continued

The signaling activity of the nervous system is made up of electrical activity within neurons and chemical flow between neurons. Neurons communicate with each other at special junctions called synapses. These synapses do not communicate by touch, but by releasing chemicals, or neurotransmitters, into a gap between the synapses called the synaptic cleft. The synaptic cleft is a small gap between the axon terminal and the receiving cell.
Chapter 49 Nerve Impulses
A neuron, like all other cells, has a membrane potential. A membrane potential is a difference in the electrical charge across a cell membrane. A membrane potential can change with an addition or removal of ions within the cell. Ions move in and out of the cell by passing through proteins that act as ion channels. Whether the ion channels are open or closed affects the membrane potential.
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Chapter 49
Nerve Impulses, continued

Resting Potential A neuron is at rest when it is not sending or receiving a signal. When at rest, the neuron is more negatively charged on the inside than on the outside of the cell body. The electric potential across the cell membrane when the neuron is at rest is called the resting potential.
Chapter 49

Action Potential When a dendrite or cell body is stimulated, the permeability of the neurons membrane changes suddenly. The membrane potential reverses and the neurons cell body becomes more positively charged than the exterior of a cell. This reverse in polarity begins an action potential.
Chapter 49

Action Potential, continued
After the first segment of the neuron is stimulated the segment next to the first will become stimulated. The action potential will continue away from the cell body. Soon after being stimulated, the interior of the neuron begins to become more and more negative. This signals the end of the action potential.
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Chapter 49

Action Potential, continued A neuron cannot generate another action potential until it has returned to its resting potential. The period in which a neuron cannot send a signal is called the refractory period. Returning the neuron to its resting potential requires energy.
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Chapter 49
Conduction of a Nerve Impulse
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Chapter 49 Action Potential
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Chapter 49
Communication Between Neurons

Once an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. These neurotransmitters bind to receptors proteins and open the ion channels of the new neuron cell. If enough ion channels are opened, the action potential will continue through the new neuron. If not, the nervous signal will be terminated. After the neurotransmitters have opened the ion channels, they will be cleared out of the synaptic cleft by being reabsorbed by the neuron that released them or broken down by enzymes.
Chapter 49
Synaptic Transmission
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Chapter 49
Release of Neurotransmitter
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Section 2 Structure of the Nervous Systems
Identify the two main parts of the central nervous system. Summarize the functions of the major parts of the brain. Describe the roles of the sensory and motor divisions of the peripheral nervous system. Distinguish between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
Chapter 49
Organization of the Nervous System

The nervous system includes two major divisions. The first division is the central nervous system and is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is the control center of the nervous system. The spinal cord carries nerve signals between the body and the brain.
Chapter 49
Structure of the Human Brain
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Chapter 49
Parts of a Human Brain
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Chapter 49
Organization of the Nervous System, continued

The second division is the peripheral nervous system and consists of neurons that have cell bodies and that are not included in the brain and spinal cord. Peripheral neurons send information to and from the central nervous system.
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Chapter 49 Brain
Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the upper part of the brain that receives sensation and controls movement. The cerebrum is made of two hemispheres, called the cerebral hemispheres. Each hemisphere is made up of four lobes, called the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital.
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Chapter 49 Brain, continued
Cerebrum, continued The folded outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is the portion of the cerebrum that controls the higher mental functions, general movement, organ function, perception, and behavioral reactions. The many folds of the cerebral cortex allow the brain to have a large surface area and still fit into the skull.
Cerebrum, continued The cerebral cortex is called gray matter. Beneath the gray matter is white matter. White matter is made up of myelinated axons, which link specific regions of the cortex with each other and with other neural centers.
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Chapter 49 Cerebrum
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Diencephalon
This section of the brain is made up of two parts, the thalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus directs most incoming sensory signals to the proper region of the cerebral cortex. The hypothalamus helps maintain homeostasis and directly controls most of the bodys hormone production.

Brain Stem
This section of the brain is made up of three parts: the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The midbrain relays visual and auditory information. The pons relays communications between the cerebral hemispheres and the cerebellum.
Brain Stem, continued The last section of the brain stem is the medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata serves as both a relay center and a control center for heart rate, respiration rate, and other homeostatic activities. The brain stem also has a network of neurons called the reticular formation. This section of the brain stem helps control respiration and circulation and helps separate signals that are important from those that are not.
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Chapter 49 Brain Stem
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Cerebellum
The cerebellum lies below and behind the cerebral hemispheres and helps to coordinate muscle action. The cerebellum receives sensory impulses from muscles, tendons, joints, eyes, and ears and other brain centers.
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Chapter 49 Cerebellum
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Chapter 49 Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is a column of nervous tissue that starts at the medulla oblongata and runs throughout the vertebral column. The spinal cord is composed of white and gray matter.
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Chapter 49
Parts of a Human Spinal Cord
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Chapter 49
Peripheral Nervous System

The central nervous system interacts with the peripheral nervous system through nerves. Nerves are bundled axons and dendrites of many neurons. Spinal nerves are made up of both a dorsal and ventral root. The dorsal roots carry signals into the central nervous system from sensory receptors. The sensory receptors are neurons that are specialized to detect stimuli such as light, pressure, and heat.
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Chapter 49
Peripheral Nervous System, continued

The peripheral nervous system also contains ventral roots. Ventral roots contain the axons of motor neurons. Motor neurons are neurons that carry information from the central nervous system to muscles and glands. Interneurons can also be found in both sections of the nervous system. Interneurons can relay information between other neurons.
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Chapter 49
Peripheral Nervous System
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Chapter 49
Sensory Division
The sensory division of the peripheral nervous system contains sensory receptors and the interneurons that connect them to the central nervous system. Sensory receptors receive information from the bodys external and internal environments.
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Chapter 49 Motor Division
The motor division of the peripheral nervous system allows the body to react to sensory information. The motor division of the peripheral nervous system is made up of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
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Chapter 49
Motor Division, continued

Somatic Nervous System The somatic nervous system contains motor neurons that control the movement of skeletal muscles. The somatic system is considered voluntary, but can operate without conscious control.
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Chapter 49

Somatic Nervous System, continued Somatic system also relays the signals in reflexes. Reflexes are involuntary and often selfprotective movements. An example is the patellar, or knee-jerk, reflex. The patellar reflex is an example of a spinal reflex, which involves only neurons in the body and bypasses the brain
Chapter 49
Knee-Jerk Response
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Chapter 49 Reflex
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Chapter 49

Autonomic Nervous System The autonomic nervous system controls internal body conditions by regulating smooth muscles in blood vessels and organs. The autonomic system is considered involuntary, and can be broken up into two subdivisions.
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Chapter 49

Autonomic Nervous System, continued The first subdivision of the autonomic nervous system is the sympathetic division. The sympathetic division prepares the body when activated by physical or emotional stress. For example, pupils dilate and heart rate increases.
Chapter 49

Autonomic Nervous System, continued The second subdivision of the autonomic nervous system is the parasympathetic division. The parasympathetic division controls the internal environment during routine conditions. For example, pupils constrict and heart rate decreases.
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Chapter 49
Physiological Effects of the Autonomic Nervous System
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Chapter 49
Comparing the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
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Section 3 Sensory Systems
List the stimuli to which each of the five types of sensory receptors respond. Identify the parts of the ear responsible for hearing and for maintaining balance. Describe the structure of the eye and roles of rods and cones in vision. Discuss how taste and smell are detected. Compare the detection of touch, temperature and pain.
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Chapter 49
Perception of Stimuli
In order to detect changes in the environment, organisms use their sense organs. Sense organs are organs that receive stimuli and give rise to the senses such as sight, smell, hearing and pain. Sense organs are part of the sensory division of the peripheral nervous system.
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Chapter 49 Sense Organs
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Chapter 49
Perception of Stimuli, continued

Receptors and Sense Organs Sensory receptors can be categorized based on the type of stimuli that they respond to. Mechanoreceptors respond to movement, pressure and tension. Photoreceptors respond to variations in light.
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Chapter 49

Receptors and Sense Organs, continued Chemoreceptors are sensory receptors that respond to chemicals. Thermoreceptors are sensory receptors that respond to changes in temperature. Pain receptors are sensory receptors that respond to tissue damage.
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Chapter 49
Types of Sensory Receptors
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Chapter 49

Receptors and Sense Organs, continued
Sensory receptors are found in higher concentrations in the sense organs than in other parts of body. When stimulated, these sensory receptors turn the stimulus into electrical signals and send those signals to the brain. Each signal that is sent to the brain is similar but may be sent to different parts of the brain to be interpreted.
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Chapter 49
Hearing and Balance

The ear performs two main functions: detecting sound and maintaining balance. Sound vibrations are directed into the ear by the fleshy structure of the outer ear. The outer ear is connected to the middle ear by the auditory canal. The auditory canal is also the tube that allows air into the ear.
Chapter 49
Hearing and Balance, continued

The middle ear begins with the tympanic membrane. The tympanic membrane is also called the eardrum. The Eustachian tube controls the air pressure beyond the tympanic membrane. The Eustachian tube is an opening to the throat that equalizes the pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane.
Chapter 49
Tympanic Membrane
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Chapter 49

When sound waves hit the tympanic membrane it begins to vibrate. These vibrations cause the three bones of the middle ear (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) to also vibrate. These vibrations are passed to the oval window by the stirrup. The oval window separates the middle ear from the inner ear.
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Past the oval window is the inner ear. The inner ear includes the cochlea. The cochlea is a coiled tube consisting of three fluid-filled chambers that are separated by membranes. The middle chamber is called the organ of Corti and is the hearing organ. The organ of Corti rests on the bottom membrane in the cochlea.
Chapter 49

The vibrations in the fluid of the cochlea move the bottom membrane, which causes hair cells to bend. Hair cells are the mechanoreceptors in the ear and can be easily damaged. The bending of the hair cells cause the release of neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters stimulate the neurons in the auditory nerve. This stimulation allows you to hear.
Chapter 49
Structure of the Ear
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Chapter 49
Parts of the Human Ear
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Chapter 49 Human Hearing
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Chapter 49

The ear also helps maintain balance. Balance is maintained by mechanoreceptors in the three fluid-filled semicircular canals of the inner ear. When the head moves the hair cells bend. The brain interprets the hair cell movement and sends out the proper signals to help the body maintain balance.
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Chapter 49 Vision
The eyes detect light and transmit signals to visual processing areas of the brain. The retina is where all structures focus light. The retina is the light sensitive layer. It receives images and transmits them through the optic nerve to the brain.
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Chapter 49 Vision, continued
In order to reach the retina, light must first pass through the cornea, pupil, iris, and lens.
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Chapter 49
Parts of the Human Eye
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The cornea is a transparent membrane that forms the front portion of the eyeball, where light is first encountered. The pupil is the next to receive light and is the opening to the interior of the eye. The amount of light that enters the pupil is controlled by the colored circular part of the eye, the iris. The lens is a crystalline structure that muscles adjust to focus the light on the retina.
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The retina interprets light through photoreceptors that translate light energy into electrical signals that can be interpreted by the brain. The photoreceptors within the eye can be broken down into two types: rods and cones. Rods can detect dim light and play a major role in noncolor and night vision. Cones can distinguish colors and are sensitive to bright light.
Chapter 49
Structure of the Eye
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Chapter 49
Comparing Rods and Cones
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Chapter 49 Taste and Smell
Chemoreceptors responsible for taste are called taste buds and can be found on the tongue, the throat, and the roof of the mouth. Taste buds are found on the tongue between bumps called papillae.
Chapter 49
Taste and Smell, continued

Chemoreceptors in the nasal passages that can detect chemicals in the air are called olfactory receptors. They are located in the mucous lining of the epithelium in the nasal passage.
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Chapter 49
Comparing Taste and Smell
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Chapter 49
Pressure and Temperature

Mechanoreceptors located throughout the skin make it possible to sense touch, pressure, and tension. Two types of receptors monitor skin temperature: hot and cold receptors. Pain receptors are located throughout the interior of the body and at the base of the epidermis. Sensory input from sensory receptors travels in an orderly way to the brain.
Section 4 Drugs and the Nervous System
Define the relationship between addiction and tolerance. Explain the physical basis of cocaine addiction. Identify six types of psychoactive drugs. List the effects of alcohol and tobacco on the body.
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Chapter 49
Psychoactive Drugs
Drugs are substances that cause a change in a persons physical or psychological state. A psychoactive drug is a drug that alters the functioning of the central nervous system. A psychoactive drug can be manmade or natural.
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Chapter 49
Psychoactive Drugs of Abuse
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Chapter 49
Psychoactive Drugs, continued

Addiction and Tolerance The abuse of a psychoactive drug usually leads to dependence. Dependence is a state in which a person relies on a drug physically or emotionally in order to function. Dependence often leads to addiction. Addiction is a condition in which a person can no longer control his or her drug use.
Chapter 49 Addiction
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Chapter 49

Addiction and Tolerance, continued When exposure to a drug is repeated, a person addicted to the drug can develop a tolerance. Tolerance is a characteristic of drug addiction in which larger and larger amounts of the drug are needed to achieve the desired sensation.
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Chapter 49 Tolerance
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Chapter 49

Addiction and Tolerance, continued Once addicted, a user will go into withdrawal if the drug is taken away. Withdrawal includes uncomfortable physical and psychological symptoms produced when a physically dependent drug user stops using drugs. Symptoms of withdrawal vary from person to person.
Chapter 49

Neural Changes The effect of psychoactive drugs on the brain can be illustrated with the example of cocaine. Cocaine is a stimulant, or a drug that generally increases the activity of the central nervous system.
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Chapter 49

Neural Changes, continued A normal synapse will allow dopamine to be reabsorbed correctly by the reuptake receptors of the presynaptic neuron. When cocaine is used, it will bind and block reuptake receptors. This causes dopamine molecules to remain in the synaptic cleft longer.
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Chapter 49

Neural Changes, continued The excess dopamine overstimulates the postsynaptic neuron, which responds by decreasing the number of receptor proteins on the postsynaptic neuron. In the absences of the drug, dopamine release returns to normal, but the postsynaptic cell is understimulated due to a lack of receptors.
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Chapter 49
Action of Cocaine
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Chapter 49
Action of Cocaine, continued
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Chapter 49
Neural Changes Caused by Drug Use
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Chapter 49
Drugs and Abuse

Alcohol Alcohol is a legal drug and can be classified as a depressant. A depressant is a drug that decreases the activity of the central nervous system. A measurement of how much alcohol is in a persons blood is called their blood alcohol concentration or BAC.
Chapter 49
Effects of Blood Alcohol Concentration
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Chapter 49
Blood Alcohol Concentration and Its Effects
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Chapter 49
Drugs and Abuse, continued

Tobacco Tobacco, like cocaine, is a highly addictive stimulant. The major drug in tobacco is nicotine. Nicotine is a toxic, addictive alkaloid that is derived from tobacco and is one of the major contributors to the harmful effects of smoking. Nicotine mimics the action of a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine.
Chapter 49

Tobacco, continued Nicotine is not the only harmful substance found in tobacco; burning tobacco produces tars. Tars are complex mixtures of chemicals and smoke particles.
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Chapter 49 Withdrawal
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Chapter 49

Tobacco, continued Long term use of tobacco can lead to cancer, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema. Chronic bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchi and bronchioles. Emphysema is a degenerative lung disease in which alveoli lose their elasticity and eventually rupture.
Chapter 49 Multiple Choice
1. Which of the following is true about the cerebral cortex? A. It is located deep in the brain. B. It is the folded outer covering of the brain. C. It is part of the peripheral nervous system. D. It is a lobed, highly folded structure located at the back of the brain.
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Chapter 49
Multiple Choice, continued

1. Which of the following is true about the cerebral cortex? A. It is located deep in the brain. B. It is the folded outer covering of the brain. C. It is part of the peripheral nervous system. D. It is a lobed, highly folded structure located at the back of the brain.
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Chapter 49

2. When a neuron is at resting potential, which of the following is true? F. Both sides of the cell are equally charged. G. The inside of the cell is negatively charged. H. The polarity across the membrane reverses. J. The outside off the cell is negatively charged.
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Chapter 49

2. When a neuron is at resting potential, which of the following is true? F. Both sides of the cell are equally charged. G. The inside of the cell is negatively charged. H. The polarity across the membrane reverses. J. The outside off the cell is negatively charged.
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Chapter 49

3. Which of the following stimuli affects mechanoreceptors? A. heat B. light C. pressure D. chemicals
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Chapter 49

3. Which of the following stimuli affects mechanoreceptors? A. heat B. light C. pressure D. chemicals
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Chapter 49

Use the graph below to answer questions 4 and 5. The graph shows the change in voltage during an action potential.
4. How long does the action potential last? F. 1 ms G. 1.5 ms H. 3 ms J. 30 ms
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Chapter 49

Use the graph below to answer questions 4 and 5. The graph shows the change in voltage during an action potential.
4. How long does the action potential last? F. 1 ms G. 1.5 ms H. 3 ms J. 30 ms
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Chapter 49

Use the graph below to answer questions 4 and 5. The graph shows the change in voltage during an action potential. 5. Which point on the graph represents when the voltage-gated sodium channels are open? A. 1 B. 2 C. 1 and 2 D. There is not enough information to determine the answer.
Chapter 49

Use the graph below to answer questions 4 and 5. The graph shows the change in voltage during an action potential. 5. Which point on the graph represents when the voltage-gated sodium channels are open? A. 1 B. 2 C. 1 and 2 D. There is not enough information to determine the answer.
Chapter 49

Complete the following analogy: 6. stimulant : nicotine :: depressant : F. alcohol G. cigarettes H. neurotransmitters J. tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
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Chapter 49

Complete the following analogy: 6. stimulant : nicotine :: depressant : F. alcohol G. cigarettes H. neurotransmitters J. tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
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Chapter 49

Use the diagram below to answer questions 7 and 8. The diagram shows a neuron. 7. Which number indicates the structure from which the neuron receives information from other neurons? A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4
Chapter 49

Use the diagram below to answer questions 7 and 8. The diagram shows a neuron. 7. Which number indicates the structure from which the neuron receives information from other neurons? A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4
Chapter 49

Use the diagram below to answer questions 7 and 8. The diagram shows a neuron. 8. Which number indicates the structure that increases the speed of action potentials? F. 1 G. 2 H. 3 J. 4
Chapter 49

Use the diagram below to answer questions 7 and 8. The diagram shows a neuron. 8. Which number indicates the structure that increases the speed of action potentials? F. 1 G. 2 H. 3 J. 4
Chapter 49 Short Response
The effect of a drug on the body varies with the size of the dose and an individuals tolerance to the drug. Explain the difference between the effective dose and the lethal dose of a drug.
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Chapter 49
Short Response, continued

The effect of a drug on the body varies with the size of the dose and an individuals tolerance to the drug. Explain the difference between the effective dose and the lethal dose of a drug. Answer: An effective dose is the dose that causes the desired response. The lethal dose is the amount that can kill the user.
Chapter 49
Extended Response
Base your answers to parts A & B on the information below. Both alcohol and tobacco can have a negative effect on human health. Part A Susan is addicted to alcohol. Predict what might happen if she quit drinking. Part B Mark smokes a pack of cigarettes a day. Describe some of the health risks Mark faces if he continues to smoke for a long period of time.
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Chapter 49
Extended Response, continued

Answer: Part A She will undergo withdrawal. Part B Mark will risk cardiorespiratory diseases including emphysema, bronchitis, and various forms of cancer.
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Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Standardized Test Prep

Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Nervous System and Sense Organs

Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Section 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses

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Section 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses

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Chapter 49 Structure of a Neuron

Section 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses

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Section 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses

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Section 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses

Neuron Structure, continued

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Section 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses

Neuron Structure, continued

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Chapter 49 Nerve Impulses

Section 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses

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Section 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses

Nerve Impulses, continued

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Section 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses

Nerve Impulses, continued

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Section 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses

Nerve Impulses, continued

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Section 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses

Nerve Impulses, continued

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Section 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses

Conduction of a Nerve Impulse

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Chapter 49 Action Potential

Section 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses

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Section 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses

Communication Between Neurons

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Section 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses

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Section 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses

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Section 2 Structure of the Nervous Systems

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Section 2 Structure of the Nervous Systems

Organization of the Nervous System

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Section 2 Structure of the Nervous Systems

Structure of the Human Brain

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Section 2 Structure of the Nervous Systems

Parts of a Human Brain

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Section 2 Structure of the Nervous Systems

Organization of the Nervous System, continued