http://www.nearingzero.net (nz014.

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This relates (sort of) to a demo I ll do later.

Today s lecture is brought to you by

Not to be confused with

Electro-Man

(http://www.thinkgeek.com)

Today s agenda: Emf, Terminal Voltage, and Internal Resistance.

You must be able to incorporate all of these quantities in your circuit calculations.

Electric Power.
You be able to calculate the electric power dissipated in circuit components, and incorporate electric power in work-energy problems.

Examples
For you to work through outside of lecture.

circuit components in series In lecture 7 (the first capacitors lecture) I used conservation of energy to show that the voltage drop across circuit components in series is the sum of the individual voltage drops.
Vab C1 a -Q V1 V2 + V C2 C3 b

Vab = V = V1 + V2 + V3

circuit components in series In general, the voltage drop across resistors in series (or other circuit components) is the sum of the individual voltage drops. R1
a

R2 V2
+ -

R3
b

V1

V3

V
Here s what your text means by Vab: Vab=Va-Vb=Vbpa

Vab = V = V1 + V2 + V3

I derived this in lecture 7.

You may use this in tomorrow s homework. It is not on your starting equations sheet, but is a consequence of conservation of energy. Use this in combination with Ohm s Law, V=IR.

DC Currents
In Physics 24, whenever you work with currents in circuits, you should assume (unless told otherwise) direct current. Current in a dc circuit flows in one direction, from + to -. We will not encounter ac circuits much in this course. For any calculations involving household current, which is ac, assuming dc will be close enough to give you a feel for the physics. If you need to learn about ac circuits, you ll have courses devoted to them. The mathematical analysis is more complex. We have other things to explore this semester.

emf, terminal voltage, and internal resistance

We have been making calculations with voltages from batteries without asking detailed questions about the batteries. Now it s time to look inside the batteries. http://www.energizer.com We introduce a new term emf in this section.

Any device which transforms a form of energy into electric energy is called a source of emf. emf is an abbreviation for electromotive force, but emf is not a force! The emf of a source is the voltage it produces when no current is flowing.

The voltage you measure across the terminals of a battery (or any source of emf) is less than the emf because of internal resistance. Here s a battery with an emf. All batteries have an internal emf is the zero-current potential difference resistance:

+ -

The battery is everything inside the green box.

Hook up a voltmeter to measure the emf:

emf

+ -

The battery is everything inside the green box. Getting ready to connect the voltmeter (it s not hooked up yet).

Measuring the emf???

I (emf)

+ -

The battery is everything inside the green box. As soon as you connect the voltmeter, current flows.

You can t measure voltage without some (however small) current flowing, so you can t measure emf directly. You can only measure Vab.

Homework hint: an ideal voltmeter would be able to measure I.

We model a battery as producing an emf, I, and having an internal resistance r:

+ The battery is everything inside the green box.

r
I Vab

The terminal voltage, Vab, is the voltage you measure with current flowing. When a current I flows through the battery, Vab is related to the emf, I, by Vab =
I r .

Why the s sign? If the battery is delivering current, the V it delivers is less than the emf, so the sign is necessary. If the battery is being charged, you have to force the current through the battery, and the V to force the current through is greater than the emf, so the + sign is necessary. Your text writes V = and expects you to put the correct sign (+ or -) on the I. I ll go along with your text, so our starting equation is Use this, with I>0, for Vab = tomorrow s homework.
I r I r .

This will become clear as you work (and understand) problems. See, for example, Power Input to a Source, page 865 of your text.

So to model a battery, simply include an extra resistor to represent the internal resistance, and label the voltage source* as an emf instead of V (units are still volts):
+ -

If the internal resistance is negligible, just don t include it!

*Remember, all sources of emf not just batteries have an internal resistance.

For tomorrow s homework: Draw the current in a circuit so that it flows from to + through the battery. The sum of the potential changes around a circuit loop is zero. Potential decreases by IR when going through a resistor. Potential increases by I when current passes through an emf in the direction from the - to + terminal. I loop +I I V is -

V is +I

If the battery has an internal resistance, treat it like any other resistor.

Example: a battery is known to have an emf of 9 volts. If a 1 ohm resistor is connected to the battery, the terminal voltage is measured to be 3 volts. What is the internal resistance of the battery? Because the voltmeter draws no current, r and R are in series with a current I flowing through both.
= I r + I R

R=1 ;
emf

+ -

IR, the potential drop across the resistor, is just the potential difference Vab. Vab = IR

internal resistance r

terminal voltage Vab

the voltmeter s resistance is so large that approximately zero current flows through the voltmeter

I r

I R

Vab = IR Vab I= R R=1 ;

emf

Ir = r= r= r= I

I R

I -R
R

Vab

-R

+ -

r = R - 1 Vab 9 r = 1 - 1 = 3 - 1 = 2; 3
A rather unrealistically large value for the internal resistance of a 9V battery.

By the way, the experiment described in the previous example is not a very good idea. Vab I= R 3 I = = 3A 1 I ll do a demo on this in a bit.

Interlude: The Knack

Only available in-class (not available on-line) If you are offended by this, simply substitute physicist for all occurences of engineer.

Today s agenda: Emf, Terminal Voltage, and Internal Resistance.

You must be able to incorporate all of these quantities in your circuit calculations.

Electric Power.
You must be able to calculate the electric power dissipated in circuit components, and incorporate electric power in work-energy problems.

Examples
For you to work through outside of lecture.

Electric Power
Last semester you defined power in terms of the work done by a force.

dWF PF ! dt

We d better use the same definition this semester! So we will. We focus here on the interpretation that power is energy transformed per time, instead of work by a force per time.

energy transformed P! time

The above equation doesn t appear on your equation sheet, but it should appear in your brain.

However, we begin with the work aspect. We know the work done by the electric force in moving a charge q through a potential difference:

Wi pf ! (U i pf ! q(Vi pf .
The work done by the electric force in moving an infinitesimal charge dq through a potential difference is:

dWi pf ! dq (Vi pf .

The instantaneous power, which is the work per time done by the electric force, is

dWi pf dq (Vi pf ! P! . dt dt

Let s get lazy and drop the ( in front of the V, but keep in the back of our heads the understanding that we are talking about potential difference. Then

dW dq P! !  V. dt dt
But wait! We defined I = dQ/dt. So

P ! IV.
And one more thing the negative sign means energy is being lost. So everybody writes

P ! IV
and understands that P<0 means energy out, and P>0 means energy in.

Also, using Ohm s law V=IR, we can write P = I2R = V2/R. I can t believe it, but I got soft and put P = I2R = V2/R on your starting equation sheet. Truth in Advertising I. The V in P=IV is a potential difference, or voltage drop. It is really a (V.

Truth in Advertising II. Your power company doesn t sell you power. It sells energy. Energy is power times time, so a kilowatt-hour (what you buy from your energy company) is an amount of energy.

Quiz time (maybe for points, maybe just for practice!)

Demo
(Remember the terminal voltage example?) How your professor almost burned down Mark Twain Elementary School (on three different occasions). (And Truman Elementary School another time, just for good measure.)

Note: no equipment set-up is needed for this demo.

Homework Hint
(usefulness depends on what homework is assigned this semester)

A 3 volt and 6 volt battery are connected in series, along with a 6 ohm resistor. The batteries are connected the wrong way (+ to + and - to -). What is the power dissipated in the resistor? To be worked at the blackboard.

Today s agenda: Emf, Terminal Voltage, and Internal Resistance.

You must be able to incorporate all of these quantities in your circuit calculations.

Electric Power.
You must be able to calculate the electric power dissipated in circuit components, and incorporate electric power in work-energy problems.

Examples
For you to work through outside of lecture.

Which example do you want to see worked next?

Not enough time to work them all.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

An electric heater: power usage and cost. How much energy is a kWh? How much energy did the electric heater use? Charge, current, and power in a lightning bolt. Power input and output in a circuit. Home power use.

Example: an electric heater draws 15.0 A on a 120 V line. How much power does it use and how much does it cost per 30 day month if it operates 3.0 h per day and the electric company charges 10.5 cents per kWh. For simplicity assume the current flows steadily in one direction.

What s the meaning of this assumption about the current direction?

The current in your household wiring doesn t flow in one direction, but because we haven t talked about current other than a steady flow of charge, we ll make the assumption. Our calculation will be a reasonable approximation to reality.

An electric heater draws 15.0 A on a 120 V line. How much power does it use.

P ! IV P ! 15 A 120 V ! 1800 W = 1.8 kW

How much does it cost per 30 day month if it operates 3.0 h per day and the electric company charges 10.5 cents per kWh.

3 h $0.105 cos t ! 1.8 kW 30 days day kWh cos t ! $17.00

Back to examples page.

How much energy is a kilowatt hour (kWh)?

1 kW 1 h ! 1000 W 3600 s
J ! 1000 3600 s s = 3.6 v106 J
So a kWh is a funny unit of energy. K (kilo) and h (hours) are lowercase, and W (James Watt) is uppercase. Back to examples page.

How much energy did the electric heater use?

Paverage !

Wdone by force time

Energy Transformed ! time

Energy Transformed ! Paverage time 3 h used 3600 s J Energy Transformed ! 1800 30 days s day h Energy Transformed ! 583, 200, 000 Joules used

Energy Transformed ! 583, 200, 000 Joules used

That s a ton of joules! Good bargain for $17. That s about 34,000,000 joules per dollar (or 0.0000029/joule). OK, used is not an SI unit, but I stuck it in there to help me understand. And joules don t come by the ton. One last quibble. You know from energy conservation that you don t use up energy. You just transform it from one form to another.

Back to examples page.

Example: a typical lightning bolt can transfer 109 J of energy across a potential difference of perhaps 5x107 V during a time interval of 0.2 s. Estimate the total amount of charge transferred, the current and the average power over the 0.2 s. What kind of a problem is this?

Numbers obtained from an old text. Actual current is likely far more.

learn about lightning at howstuffworks

You are given energy transferred, potential difference, time. You need to calculate charge transferred, current, and average power. Equations for current and power are obvious:

Iavg

(Q ! (t

Pavg

(W ! (t

We could calculate power right now, but let s do this in the order requested. Besides, we can t get current without (Q, charge transferred.

(U ! q(V
We need to think in terms of energy transformations rather than work done by forces. The equation above tells us that potential energy stored in clouds can be transferred to the ground (at a different potential) by moving charge from cloud to ground. We are given energy transferred and potential difference, so we can calculate q.

Could I think of the cloud-earth system as a giant capacitor which stores energy? You could, except our capacitor equation U=QV/2 assumes the same charge on both plates; that s untrue here.

Continuing with our energy transformation idea: Etransferred= Qtransferred (Vipf Qtransferred = Etransferred / (Vipf Qtransferred = 109 J / 5x107 V Qtransferred = 20 C That s a lot of charge (remember, typical charges are 10-6 C. Once we have the charge transferred, the current is easy. I=
Q

20 C I= = 100 A 0.2 s

This is probably less than the actual current in a lightning bolt by a factor of anywhere from 10 to 1000. See this link.

Average power is just the total energy transferred divided by the total time. WF PF = t E transferred P= t 109 J P= 0.2 s P = 510 9 W P = 5 GW
The numbers in this calculation differ substantially than the numbers in a homework problem(not necessarily assigned this semester). This lightning bolt carries relatively low current for a long time through a high potential difference, and transports a lot of energy. In reality, there is no such thing as a universallytypical lightning bolt, so expect different results for different bolts. See here.

Holy ****, Batman. That s the power output of five enormous power plants! Back to examples page.

Example: A 12 V battery with 2 ; internal resistance is connected to a 4 ; resistor. Calculate (a) the rate at which chemical energy is converted to electrical energy in the battery, (b) the power dissipated internally in the battery, and (c) the power output of the battery. (a) Rate of energy conversion. The total resistance in the circuit is 6 ;, so V = I Rtotal I = I / Rtotal = 12 V / 6 ; = 2 A Energy is converted at the rate Pconverted=II=(2 A)(12 V)=24W. I R=4;
+-

r=2;

I = 12 V

(a) Rate of energy conversion

official solution.

Actually, you don t officially know that resistances in series add, so for tomorrow you might do this: start at the negative terminal of the battery. Then I - I R2; - I R4; = 0 R=4;
+-

r=2;

I = 12 V

I = I / (R2; + R4;) = 12 V / 6 ; = 2 A

(b) Power dissipated internally in the battery.

R=4;
+-

I=2A

r=2;

I = 12 V

Pdissipated = I2r = (2 A)2 (2 ;) = 8 W. (c) Power output of the battery. Poutput = Pconverted - Pdissipated = 24 W - 8 W = 16W.

(c) Power output of the battery (double-check). I=2A R=4;

+-

I=2A

r=2;

I = 12 V

The output power is delivered to (and dissipated by) the resistor: Poutput = Presistor = I2 R = (2 A)2 (4 ;) = 16W.

Back to examples page.

Example: the electric utility company supplies your house with electricity from the main power lines at 120 V. The wire from the pole to your house has a resistance of 0.03 ;. Suppose your house is drawing 110 A of current

I VT R

VH

(a) Find the voltage at the point where the power wire enters your house. (VHT = IR VT-VH = IR VH = VT-IR VH = (120 V) (110 A) (0.03;) = 116.7 V

(b) How much power is being dissipated in the wire from the pole to your house?

I VT R

VH

Three different ways to solve; all will give the correct answer.

P = I(V = I2R = ((V)2/R P = I(VT-VH) = I2R = (VT-VH)2/R P = (110 A) (120 V -116.7 V) = 363 W or P = (110 A)2 (0.03;) = 363 W or P = (120 V 116.7 V)2 / (0.03;) = 363 W

(c) How much power are you using inside your house?

I VT R

VH

You need to understand that your household voltage represents the potential difference between the incoming and outgoing power lines, and the outgoing is at ground (0 V in this case) except because the outgoing power line is at 0 V, you can accidentally get this correct if you simply multiply the current by the voltage at the point where the power wire enters your house.

(c) How much power are you using inside your house?

I VT R

VH

P = I(V P = (110 A) (116.7 V P = 12840 W You don t want to use the P=I2R=V2/R equations because you don t know the effective resistance of your house (although you could calculate it).
P = (110 A) (120 V) (110 A)(3.3 V) is also a reasonable way to work this part.

0 V)

Back to examples page.