Prof. Dr.

Sabah Abdel-Hady

describes the energy changes during biochemical processes. Energy is the capacity to perform work
Bioenergetics

a) Heat energy that maintains the body temperature at 37oC b) Free energy that performs work e.g.  mechanical work muscle contraction  electrical work nerve impulses transmission  chemical work synthetic reactions  osmotic work active secretion & active absorption

*** High-Energy compounds liberate on hydrolysis more than 7 Kcal/mole. High energy phosphate bonds: Contain high-energy and is written as e.g. 1,3biphosphoglycerate , phosphoenol pyruvate, creatine phosphate, nucleotides as ATP High energy sulphate bonds:  1- S-adenosyl methionine (SAM).  2- Phosphoadenosine phosphosulfate (PAPS). *** Low-energy compounds produce, on hydrolysis, 2-4 (below 7) Kcal. of free energy per mole, e.g. phosphate ester bond in sugar phosphates G-6P.

Storage of energy 1) ATP; the common currency of energy 2) Creatine phosphate ATP + Creatine creatine kinase

ADP + creatine phosphate.

 Cells

harvest energy by breaking bonds and shifting electrons from one molecule to another.
aerobic respiration - final electron acceptor is oxygen anaerobic respiration - final electron acceptor is inorganic molecule other than oxygen

Mechanism of energy collection. 1)Substrate level 2)Oxidative phosphorylation at the respiratory chain

1)Substrate level

phosphorylation in which high-energy phosphate is transferred from the substrate to ADP to form ATP. e.g. conversion of 1,3 biphosphoglycerate to 3phosphoglycerate by phosphoglycerate kinase with the formation of ATP.

Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain

System of Linked Electron Carriers

Components of Electron Transport Process

Reoxidation of NADH and FADH2 Sequential oxidation-reduction of multiple redox centers (four enzyme complexes) Production of proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane

Oxidative Phosphorylation
Synthesis of ATP driven by free energy of electrochemical gradient

Overall Reaction (Oxidation of NADH by O2)

N A D H + H + + 1 /2 O 2 N A D + + H 2O

E o ' = + 0 .81 5 V ( 0 .31 5 V ) = 1.1 3 0 V G o ' = nF E o ' G o ' = 2 1 8 kJ /m o l

ATP Synthesis

ADP + Pi

A TP

G o ' = + 30.5 k J/m o l

is final common pathway in aerobic cells by which electrons derived from various substances are transferred to O2 to form H2O. ETC is formed of a series of electron carriers, which catalyze the transfer of electrons from reduced coenzymes to oxygen. The energy released is utilized for  synthesis of high energy phosphate bonds (conversion of ADP + Pi ATP).  Heat production
It

Intermembrane + H + space H+ H+ H + H+ H+ H+ H Rotor

Rod Catalytic head

ADP + Pi ATP H+ Mitochondrial matrix

Coupling of Electron Transport and ATP Synthesis

NOTE: ATP Synthesis in the Mitochondrion

Hydrogen and electrons flow through the respiratory chain from the more electronegative components ( NADH) to the more electropositive O2 i.e. in the order of increase in redox potential. The redox span from NAD+/NADH to O2/H2O is 1.1 volts Electrons move from a carrier with low reduction potential (high tendency to donate electrons) toward carriers with higher reduction potential (high tendency to accept electrons).

The respiratory chain exists in the inner mitochondrial membrane and consists of a series of catalysts (= redox carriers) that collect and transport reducing equivalents (hydrogen or electrons) from NAD-linked dehydrogenase system, through flavoproteins and cytochromes, and finally to molecular oxygen to form water.

Kinetics and Mechanisms of Transport

The components of the respiratory chain Located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Formed of a series of 4 complexes , coenzyme Q and cytochrome C .

Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain

The transfer of electrons is not directly to oxygen but through coenzymes There are 2 sites of entry NAD+ for electrons into the FMN electron transport chain: NAD+ or FAD FeS Both are coenzymes for ubiquinone FeS dehydrogenase enzymes FAD
Cyt b ubiquinone FeS Cyt c1 Cyt c Cyt a Cyt a3 1/2 O2

Electron Transport chain (respiratory chain)



The electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane can be isolated in four proteins complexes(I, II, III, IV). A lipid soluble coenzyme (Q) and a water soluble protein (cyt c) shuttle between protein complexes Electrons transfer through the chain - from complexes I and II to complex IV

I: is (NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase, or NADH dehydrogenase.) It is formed of :  Many polypeptides  FMN coenzyme  Seven iron sulfur centers (fes) which are necessary for the transfer of hydrogen atoms to the next member of the chain (coenzyme Q). It catalyzes the transfer of electrons from NADH +H+ to coenzyme Q (ubiquinon). Electrons or hydrogens are transferred from NADH to FMN then to different fes centers and finally to UQ to form reduced UQ H2 (ubiqinol) .
Complex

X CONH2 XH2

H CONH2 + H+

N oxidised coenzyme + + NAD or NADP

N reduced coenzyme NADH or NADPH

Always a 2-electron reaction transferring 2 e- and 2 H+

OH CH2 CH H3C N N

OH CH O N

OH CH CH2 O

O P OH OH

H3C

N O

riboflavin monophosphate (flavin mononucleotide, FMN)

NH2 N OH CH2 CH H3C H3C N N N O OH CH O OH CH CH2 O O P OH O O P OH O CH2 O N N N

flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) OH

OH

FAD Always a 2-electron reaction transferring 2 e- and 2 H+

Cys S S Cys Cys S S Fe

S S Fe Fe S Fe

Fe S

S Cys Cys S S Cys

4-iron Fe-S

Fe S S Cys

2-iron Fe-S Two iron-sulfur centers from complex I

Cys

Iron-Sulfur Centers

O CH3O CH3 CH3 (CH2 CH C CH2)nH

The quinone ring of coenzyme Q can CH3O be reduced to the O  quinol in a 2e reaction: 2 e + 2 H+
OH CH3O

coenzyme Q

CH3 CH3

CH3O OH

(CH2 CH

CH2)nH

coenzyme QH2

Q + 2 e + 2 H+

QH2.

Q (CoQ, Q or ubiquinone) is lipid-soluble. It dissolves in the hydrocarbon core of a membrane.

Coenzyme

the only electron carrier not bound to a protein.

Complex II: ( succinate:ubiquinone oxidoreductase.) Is formed of:  Succinate dehydrogenase.  FAD coenzyme.  Two iron sulfur centers. It catalyzes the transfer of electrons or hydrogens from succinate to UQ to form UQH2.

COO H H C C H H

QH2

COO C

via FAD H

C COO

COO

succinate fumarate Succinate Dehydrogenase (Complex II)

Complex III ( Ubiquinol:ferricytochrome C oxidoreductase.) Is formed of :  Cytochrome b  One Fe-S center  Cytochrome C1 It transfers electrons from UQ-H2 to cytochrome C with the release of two protons ( 2H+ ).

Cytochromes each contain a heme group made of a porphyrin ring contaning an atom of iron. Unlike the heme groups of Hb , the cytochrome iron atom is reversibly converted from its Fe+2 to Fe +3 as a normal part of its function as a reversible carrier of electrons.

Cytochromes
Cytochromes are electron carriers containing hemes . Hemes in the 3 classes of cytochrome (a, b, c) differ in substituents on the porphyrin ring. Some cytochromes(b,c1,a,a3) are part of large integral membrane protein complexes. Cytochrome c is a small, water-soluble protein.

Heme is a prosthetic group of cytochromes. Heme contains an iron atom in a porphyrin ring system.

The heme iron can undergo 1 e- transition between ferric and ferrous states: Fe3+ + eFe2+ Copper ions besides two heme A groups (a and a3) act as electron carriers in Cyta,a3 Cu2++eCu+

CH3 CH3 HC S CH2 protein

N H3C N


CH3 Fe N CH3 N CH S CH2 protein

OOC

CH2 CH2

CH2 CH2 COO

CH3

Heme c

Complex IV: ( ferrocytochrome C: oxygen oxidoreductase). It is formed of:  Two cytochromes ( a & a3 )  Two atoms of copper It transfers electrons from cytochrome C to oxygen which then combines with the two H+ to form H2O.

Electron carriers
NAD+, flavins and Q carry electrons and H+ Cytochromes and non-haem iron proteins carry only electrons NAD+ FAD undergoes only a 2 e- reaction; cytochromes undergo only 1e- reactions FMN Q undergoes 1e- and 2 e- reaction

NAD+ FMN

I
FeS FAD FeS ubiquinone Cyt b

NADH Dehydrogenase

II
Succinate dehydrogenase
ubiquinone

Cytochrome Oxidase

FeS

Cyt c1

Cyt c

Cyt a

Cyt a3 1/2 O2

III
CoQ-cyt c Reductase

IV

 Coupling

site I : lies between FMN & CO Q Coupling site II : lie between cytochrome b & C1 Coupling site III: lies at cytochrome a a3

a substrate is oxidized via NAD-linked dehydrogenase, three molecules of ATP are formed. when a substrate is oxidized via a flavoprotein-linked dehydrogenase, only two molecules of ATP are Formed
When

Mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation (Mitchell's chemiosmotic theory) Oxidation of components of the respiratory chain leads to generation of protons inside the mitochondrial matrix that are pumped to the outside of the inner membrane. Complexes I,III and IV act as proton pumps This results in accumulation of protons outside the inner membrane which in turn creates an electrochemical potential difference across the inner membrane leading to formation of ATP from ADP and Pi by the enzyme ATP synthase ATP synthase is formed of two subunits F0 & F1 .  The F0 subunit protrude into mitochondrial matrix and acts as a gate or channel for protons  F1 subunits present in the inner mitochondrial membrane, it catalyzes the synthesis of ATP.

As protons cross the membrane through the channel in the base of ATP synthase

the FO proton-driven motor rotate

This movement provides the energy for the active sites of F1 that produces and then releases ATP

ADP/ATP Exchanger Electrogenic Antiporter Driven by electrochemical gradient

Control of Respiratory Chain The respiratory chain is controlled by the levels of ADP and Pi as well as by the availability of ADP/ATP transporter.

Inhibitors of the respiratory chain.

A) Inhibitors of the respiratory chain proper. B) Inhibitors of oxidative phosphorylation. C) Uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation.

A) Inhibitors of the respiratory chain proper. They inhibit the respiratory chain at four sites Site 1: between FeS and Q in complex I. It is inhibited by barbiturates, piericidin A (antibiotic) and rotenone (insecticide and fish poison) Site 2: between cytochrome b and cytochrome c1 in complex III. It is inhibited by antimycin and dimercaprol. Site 3: at cytochrome oxidase in complex IV. It is inhibited by hydrogen sulfide (H2S), carbon monoxide (CO), and cyanide. Site 4: between succinate dehydrogenase and Q in complex II. It is inhibited by carboxin.

B) Inhibitors of oxidative phosphorylation. They include Oligomycin that inhibits the transport of ADP into and the transport of ATP out of the mitochondria. Atractyloside is another inhibitor. C) Uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation.  They dissociate oxidation in the respiratory chain from phosphorylation.  Oxidation becomes unlimited since it is not controlled by the concentration of ADP or Pi.  They include 2,4 dinitrophenol, dinitrocresol, pentachlorophenol, thyroxine, Ca2+ and mchlorocarbonyl cyanide phenyl hydrazone (CCCP).

Oxidation of extramitochondrial NADH.  NADH is produced in the cytosol during glycolysis in the reaction catalyzed by glyceraldehydes -3- phosphate dehydrogenase.  This NADH can not enter the respiratory chain in the mitochondria because the inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to it.  reducing equivalents are transferred from extramitochondrial NADH to the mitochondria by one of two shuttles

No NADH Transporter

Aerobic glycolysis yeilds  8 ATPs if malate shuttle is used  6 ATPs if glycerophosphate shuttle is used and accordingly complete oxidation of 1 mol of glucose yields 38 or 36 ATPs.