Analog and Digital Signals

Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers to information that is continuous; digital data refers to information that has discrete states. Analog data take on continuous values. Digital data take on discrete values.

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Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers to information that is continuous; digital data refers to information that has discrete states. Analog data take on continuous values. Digital data take on discrete values. To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals.

In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals and nonperiodic digital signals.

Signals can be analog or digital. Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range; digital signals can have only a limited number of values.

Figure 4-4

Periodic Signals

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Figure 4-6

Sine Wave

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Figure 4-7

Phases

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Figure 4-8

Amplitude Change

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Figure 4-9

Frequency Change

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Internet Lyer
ARP- To find the physical address when IP is known RARP- to find IP when physical address is known ICMPIGMPIP- unreliable, best-effort delivery, connectionless

Transport Layer
TCP-connection oriened, sequence number, reordering of segment UDP-

Figure 3-1

OSI Model

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Figure 3-2

OSI Layers

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Figure 3-3

An Exchange Using the OSI Model

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Figure 3-4

Physical Layer

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Representation of bits Data rate- number of bits sent in 1 sec Synchronization of bits- bit rate should be same at sender and receiving side, clock should be synchronized Transmission Mode- Simplex, Half duplex, Full Duplex

Figure 3-5

Data Link Layer

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Flow Control Error Control Physical Addressing Framing Access control

Figure 3-7

Network Layer

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Logical AddressingRouting

Transport Layer
Service point addressing- Process to process delivery of message, port addressing Segmentation and reassemblyConnection controlFlow and error control-

Session Layer Dialog control- whose turn to transmit Token ManagementSynchronization Presentation layerTranslation-changes sender dependent format into common format EncryptionData compression-

Figure 3-9

Transport Layer

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Figure 3-9

Transport Layer

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Figure 3-12

Presentation Layer

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Figure 3-14

Summary of Layer Functions

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