The Blood

Rubie Maranan-Causaren, MS
 Functions of the Blood:
• Transport
• Protection
– Microorganisms
– Blood loss
• Immunity
• Aids in maintaining water balance
• thermoregulation
 General Features:
• About 5.5 L in man
• Components: plasma and formed elements
• Clotting: coagulum + serum
• Hematocrit
• Differential cell count
• Staining properties
 Components of Blood
Anticoagulants (heparin, citrate)
 Hematocrit (Hct)
• Estimate of the
volume of packed
erythrocytes per unit
(1%) volume of blood
• Normal values
– 40%-50% in men
– 35%-45% in women
• Diagnosis of anemia
and polycythemia
(>Hct65)
Four Major Staining Properties:
1. Basophilia
• An affinity for methylene blue
• Basophilic structures stain purple to black
2. Azurophilia
• An affinity for oxidation products of methylene blue
called azures
• e.g. stains (Giemsa, Wright’s, Leishman’s)
• Azurophilic structures stain red-blue
3. Eosinophilia or acidophilia
• An affinity for eosin
• Acidophilic structures stain yellow-pink to orange
4. Neutrophilia
• Affinity for complex dyes in the mixture
• Neutrophilic structures stain salmon pink to lilac
 Most abundant
α, β, γ;
γ includes Ig or
(Na, K, Ca)
antibodies

Converted to fibrin solutes

during blood
clotting
Figure 34.12b
Red blood cells /erythrocytes
RBCs (a. Normal structure and function)
• size 2.6 µm
0.8 µm
• biconcave
• Packed with hemoglobin
• Normal concentration in blood
7.5 µm
– ~3.9 – 5.5 m/µL in women
– ~4.1 – 6.0 m/µL in men
• flexible
• mature: non-nucleated
• mature: no mitochondria
• mature: lack ribosomes
– Limited lifespan: 120 days
• Function?
 RBCs (b. plasmalemma and stroma)
• Plasmalemma:
– 40% lipids, 50% proteins, and 10% carbohydrates (antigens)

• Red cell ghost or ghost cells

– plasmalemma
– Stroma (red cell cytoskeleton)
 Stroma
Mostly of peripheral proteins

Removal?

Fragmentation of plasmalemma

Functions of stroma?
– Biconcave
– Strength, elasticity, pliability
Stroma
 Integral proteins
• Band 3
– Channel (HCO3- and Cl-)
• Glycophorin A
– RBCs repel each other
– Receptor used by Plasmodium
 RBCs (c. hemoglobin)
• Interior: 33% solution of hemoglobin (Hb)
• Basic protein which accounts for erythrocytes
acidophilia
• structure

• 1 RBC contains 280 m Hb

• O2 + Hb = HbO2 (oxyhemoglobin)
• CO2 + Hb = HbCO2 (carbaminohemoglobin) (30%)
ABO Blood Grouping
Type O

Type A

Type B

Type AB
R u a legitimate child?
Rh
Rh Blood Type
 WBCs
• Shape: amorphous
• Migrate to tissues by means
of diapedesis
– Unidirectional flow of
granulocytes & monocytes
– Mediated by cell adhesion
molecules
– Increased during infections
and inflammation
– A result of chemotaxis
• Most die by apoptosis
Figure 35.9
Divisions:
Granulocytes
• polymorphs
• Myeloid cells
• include?
• two types of granules
Agranulocytes
• specific granules
• include?
• azurophilic • mononuclear
which stain leucocytes
purple and are • azurophilic
actually granules
lysosomes • non-terminal
• all are terminal
non-dividing cells
• few mitochondria
(anaerobic glycolysis)
• glycogen
WBCs in blood
Blood (WBC)
Granulocytes

neutrophil eosinophil basophil

Agranulocytes

lymphocyte monocyte
 Differential Leucocyte Count
• Varies according to age, sex, and physiological conditions
• Normal adults: 6,000-10,000 WBCs/µL
(Granulocytes)
Neutrophil
• Most common type
• Size: 12-15 µm in
diameter
• Nucleus:
– Immature: horseshoe-shaped
– Mature: may have 2-5 lobes
(usually 3)
– Lobulation increases with
maturity
– Hypersegmented cells
– Barr body/drumstick
chromosome
• Only 3% of neutrophils
(Granulocytes)
Neutrophil
Cytoplasm:
Primary granules
• 1o? Tertiary granules
• Actually are azurophilic granules larger • Recently been described
than 2o granules • Contains gelatinase secreted into the
• Stain reddish-purple extracellular matrix
• With maturation, # falls relative to 2o • Also insert some glycoproteins into cell
granules membranes promoting cellular
• Contain acid hydrolases adhesion and hence may be involved
• Contain myeloperoxidase (antibacterial in phagocytosis
and digestive)

Secondary granules
• specific granules about 0.2-0.8 µm
• Stain salmon pink
• Twice as numerous as 1o granules
• Contents are involved with in the
mobilization of inflammatory mediators
and complement activators which are
released during inflammation
(Granulocytes)
Neutrophil
• DLC:
– 5,000/µL of blood
– 60-70%
– Normal: 1.5-10 x 109/L
– >10 x 109/L (neutrophilia which may indicate
bacterial infection or tissue necrosis)
– < 1.5 x 109/L (neutropenia which may be due to a
decreased production in the bone marrow or to
increased destruction in tissues)
• Duration of development: 6-9 days
• Lifespan: 6 hours to few days
(Granulocytes)
Neutrophil
Functions:
• 1st line of defense against bacterial invasion
• Phagocytosis of bacteria and dead cells
• Play a central role in the early stages of acute
inflammatory response to tissue injury
• Defunct neutrophils are the major constituent of
pus hence called pus cells
• Death: lysosomal enzymes are released in the
extracellular space causing liquefaction of
adjacent tissue
• opsonization
(Granulocytes)
Eosinophil
• Size: 12-17 µm in diameter
• Nucleus: bilobed
• Cytoplasm:
– Many large (0.5-1.5 µm) specific
granules (about 200/cell) that are
stained bright red or red-orange
• Internum or crystalline core
– Contains an extremely
alkaline protein called major
basic protein (acidophilia)
and other proteins
• Externum or matrix
– Less dense area
(Granulocytes)
Eosinophil
• DLC:
– 150/µL of blood
– 2-4%
– Eosinophilia – associated with allergic reactions
(asthma, etc.) and helminthic infestation
• Duration of development: 6-9 days
• Lifespan: 8-12 days
(Granulocytes)
Eosinophil
Functions:
• Preferentially attracted by substances released from
mast cells and basophils, notably histamine and
eosinophil chemotactic factor of anaphylaxis (ECF-A),
as well as activated lymphocytes (hTL)
• Modulate or dampen down allergic reactions
– Release of histaminase and aryl sulfatase which inactivate
two mast cell products [histamine and slow reactive
substance of anaphylaxis (SRS-A)]
• Found in connective tissues underlying epithelia of the
skin, lungs, bronchi, GIT, uterus and vagina
(Granulocytes)
Eosinophil
Functions:
• Limited phagocytosis of Ag-Ab complexes
• Killing of parasites like helminths (mediated by
IgE receptors on surfaces of eosinophils) due
to release of major basic protein
 (major basic protein)

IgE
(Granulocytes)
Basophil
• Size: 12-15 µm in diameter
• Nucleus: bilobed or S-shaped (3
twisted lobes) but obscured by
specific granules
• Cytoplasm: specific granules
– Large (0.5 µm)
– stained metachromatically to IgE
reddish-violet to nearly black; IgE receptor
deep violet; deep violet-blue
– Contain histamine, heparin, SRS-
A, ECF-A
– Contents are released during
degranulation (stimulated by an
allergen)
Mast cell
(Granulocytes)
Basophil
• DLC:
– 30/µL of blood
– < 1% (0.5%) (least common)
• Duration of development: 3-7 days
• Lifespan: hours to days
(Granulocytes)
Basophil
Functions:
• Have receptors for IgE produced by plasma
cells in response to allergen
Exposure to allergen

rapid degranulation releasing histamine and other vasoactive mediators

•an immediate hypersensitivity reaction

allergic rhinitis (hay fever), some forms of asthma,

urticaria, and anaphylaxis
(Agranulocytes)
Lymphocytes
• Size:
– 6-8 µm in diameter (small lymphocytes)
– 9-18 µm in diameter (large lymphocytes);
about 3% of the blood; represents
activated lymphocytes
• Nucleus: spherical
• Cytoplasm:
– Scanty; thin rim around the nucleus
– Contains a few azurophilic granules
– Few mitochondria
– A small golgi complex
– Few polyribosomes
(Agranulocytes)
Lymphocyte
• DLC:
– 2,400/µL of blood
– 28% of circulating blood
– Most numerous WBCs in children
– Number increases in response to viral infection
• Duration of development: 1-2 days
• Lifespan:
– 3 days – 20 years
– Only WBCs to recirculate after diapedesis
(Agranulocytes)
Lymphocytes (B cells)
Functions:
• Migrate into the tissues and special organs of
the immune system
• “immune surveillance”
(Agranulocytes)

Lymphocytes (B cells)

• Types:
– *B cells
– NK cells
– T cells (leave the
thymus either CD4+ or
CD8+ cells)

*”Bursa of Fabricius”
(Agranulocytes)

Lymphocytes (B cells)

• Contains about 150,000 IgM as

receptors
• Recognize soluble antigens or
antigens present on cell surface
• Non-terminal (2 main subpopulations):
– Plasma cells
– Memory B cells
(Agranulocytes)

Lymphocytes (T cells)
• Constitute 65-75% of blood
lymphocytes
• To recognize an epitope, all T
cells have TCR (T cell receptor)
• Recognize only epitopes the form
complexes with MHC of APCs
• Non-terminal (2 main
subpopulations):
– Effector cells
• Helper T cell (hTL) or CD4+ T cells
• Cytotoxic T cell (cTL) or CD8+ T cells
– Memory cells
• Memory Helper T cell
• Memory Cytotoxic T cell
(Agranulocytes)

Lymphocytes (helper T cells)

• Also called CD4+ cells (CD4 is also used by HIV to enter hTL)
• Play a very important role in immune response by:
– Production and secretion of cytokines
– Differentiation of B cells to plasma cells
– Activation of macrophages
– Activation of cTLs
– Induction of an inflammatory reaction
(Agranulocytes)

Lymphocytes (cytotoxic T cells)

• Also called CD8+ cells
• Can act on foreign cells or virus-infected cells by
two main mechanisms:
– Attach to target cells and release proteins called perforins and results to
cell lysis
– Attach to target cells and kill them by triggering apoptosis

Lymphocytes (NK cells)

• Lack marker molecule characteristic of B and T cells
• 10-15% of circulating lymphocytes
• Attack virus-infected cells, transplanted cells, and cancer cells
without previous stimulation (innate immune response)
(Agranulocytes)
Monocytes
• Size:
– 12-20 µm in diameter
• Nucleus:
– oval or horseshoe- or kidney- or bean-
shaped with 2-3 nucleoli
• Cytoplasm:
– Basophilic and contains very fine
azurophilic granules (lysosomes)
– With small quantity of RER, polyribosomes
– Many small mitochondria
– With golgi complex involved with the
formation of lysosomal granules
(Agranulocytes)
Monocyte
• DLC:
– 350/µL of blood
– 5% of circulating blood
• Duration of development: 2-3 days
• Lifespan:
– Months to years
(Agranulocytes)
Monocytes
Functions:
• Non-terminal cells  mononuclear phagocyte
system
• macrophages
 megakaryocyte

Platelets
• Size:
– 2-4 µm (in diameter) disklike fragments
arising from megakaryocytes in bone
marrow
• Nucleus: non-nucleated
• Structure:
• Two zones:
– Hyalomere
– Granulomere
• granules, few mitochondria and glycogen
• canalicular system that opens to the
external canalicular pits
• Marginal bundle
– Maintains ovoid shape
• Dense tubular system
– Platelet movement and aggregation
• Cell coat (15-20nm thick)
– Platelet adhesion
 Platelets
• Structure:
Granulomere (granules):
• δ (delta) granules or dense bodies
– Contain Ca2+, pyrophosphate, ADP, ATP,
and serotonin
• Α (alpha) granules
– Contain fibrinogen, platelet-derived growth
factor and other platelet-specific proteins
• λ (lamda) granules
– Contain lysosomal enzymes

• Number: 300,000/µL of blood

– <150 x 109/L (thrombocytopenia)
• Duration of development: 4-5 days
• Lifespan: 8-12 days
• Function: blood clotting
1. Platelet activation Summary of Blood Clotting

2. Platelet aggregation
Okey na!
RBCs (d. some abnormalities/diseases)

• Anisocytosis
– Refers to a high % of RBCs with unusually
great variations in size
– Macrocytes (>9 µm in diameter)
– Microcytes (<6 µm in diameter)
RBCs (d. some abnormalities/diseases)

• Nuclear fragments
– Or Howell-Jolly bodies remain in mature
RBCs
– When these form circular fragments, they are
termed Cabot rings
RBCs (d. some abnormalities/diseases)

• reticulocytes
– Some RBCs released from the bone marrow
contain a small amount of RER and
ribosomes
– If >1% of circulating RBCs, indicative of an
increased demand for oxygen-carrying
capacity
• From loss of RBCs during hemorrhage or anemia
• Recent ascent to a higher altitude
RBCs (d. some abnormalities/diseases)
RBCs (d. some abnormalities/diseases)

Figure 12—4. Scanning electron micrograph of a distorted erythrocyte from a

person who is homozygous for the HbS gene (sickle cell disease). x6500.
RBCs (d. some abnormalities/diseases)

• Polycythemia or erythrocytosis
– >Hct65
– May be a physiological adaptation (in people
who live in high altitude with low oxygen
tension)
– When severe, it can impair circulation of blood
through the capillaries
Figure 35.4