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Definition
Let R be the relation, and let x and y be the arbitrary subset of the set of attributes of R. Then we say that Y is functionally dependent on x in symbol. XY (Read x functionally determines y) If and only if each x value in R has associated with it precisely one y value in R In other words Whenever two tuples of R agree on their x value, they also agree on their Y value.
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
Because every tuple of that relation with a given S# value also has the same city value.
The left and right hand side of an FD are sometimes called determinant and the dependents respectively.
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
Exercise
Check whether following relation satisfy FD as not < S#, P# > <QTY> <S#, P#> <City> < S#, P#> <City, QTY> <S#, P#> <S#> <S#, P#> <S#, P#, QTY, City> <OTY> <S#>
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
One-way to reduce the size of the set of FD we need to deal with is to eliminate the trivial dependencies. An FD is trivial if and only if the right hand side is a subset of the left hand side. e.g. <S#, P#> <S#>. (Trivial) Nontrivial dependencies are the one, which are not trivial.
Algorithm
CLOSURE (Z, S): = Z; DO forever For each FD X -> Y in S Do; if X < CLOSURE [Z, S] /* <= subset of */ then CLOSURE [Z,S] : = CLOSURE [Z, Z] U Y; end; If CLOSURE [Z, S] did not change on this iteration. Then leave loop; /* Computation complete */ End;
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
Example
Suppose use are given R with attributes A, B, C, D, E, F, and FDs A BC E CF BE CD EF Then compute the closure (A, B)+ of the set of attributes under this set of FDs
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
Solution
1. We initialize the result CLOSURE [Z, S] to <A, B> 2. We now go round the inner loop four times, once for each for the given FDs. An the first iteration (For FD A BC), we find that the left hand side is indeed a subset of CLOSURE (Z, S) as computed so for, so we add attributes (B and C) to the result. CLOSURE [Z, S] is now the set <A, B, C>.
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
Solution
3. On the second iteration (for FD E CF>. we find that the left hand side is not a subset of the result as computed so for, which than remain unchanged. 4. On the third iteration (For FD B E), we add E to the closure, which now has the value <A, B, C, E> 5. On the fourth iteration, (for FD CD EF), remains unchanged.
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
Solution
6. Inner loop times, on the first iteration no change, second, it expands to <A,B, C, E, F> third & fourth, no change. 7. Again inner loop four times, no change, and so the whole process terminates.
Armstrong rules
Reflexivity: if B is a subset of A, then A B. Augmentation: if A B then AC BC Transitivity: it A B and B C then A C. Self determination: A A. Decomposition: If A BC, then AB, AC. Union: it A B and A C, then A BC Composition: if A B, C D then AC BD. 8. If A B and C D, then All (C B) BD 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
Example
A BC, BC AB AB C AC D
Solution
(1) The step is to rewrite the FD such that each has a singleton right hand side. AB AC BC AB AB C AC D We observe that the FD A B occurs twice. So one occurrence will be eliminated.
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
Solution
2. Next, attributed C can be eliminated from the left hand side of the FD AC D Because we have A C, By augmentation A AC And we are given AC D, So A D by transitivity;
Solution
3. Next, we observe that the FD AB C can be eliminated, because again we have
By augmentation AB CB By decomposition AB C 4. Finally, the FD A C is implied by the FD A B and B C, so it can be eliminated. Now we have A B BC AD This set is irreducible.
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
AC
Example
A BC BE CD EF
Solution
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. A BC (given) A C (1, decomposition) AD CD (2, augmentation) CD EF (given) AD EF (3 & 4, transitivity) AD F (5, decomposition
Normalization
Learning Objectives
Definition of normalization and its purpose in database design Types of normal forms 1NF, 2NF, 3NF, BCNF, and 4NF Transformation from lower normal forms to higher normal forms Design concurrent use of normalization and E-R modeling are to produce a good database design Usefulness of denormalization to generate information efficiently
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
Normalization
Main objective in developing a logical data model for relational database systems is to create an accurate representation of the data, its relationships, and constraints. To achieve this objective, must identify a suitable set of relations.
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
Normalization
Four most commonly used normal forms are first (1NF), second (2NF) and third (3NF) normal forms, and BoyceCodd normal form (BCNF). Based on functional dependencies among the attributes of a relation. A relation can be normalized to a specific form to prevent possible occurrence of update anomalies.
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
Normalization
Normalization is the process for assigning attributes to entities
Reduces data redundancies Helps eliminate data anomalies Produces controlled redundancies to link tables
Normalization stages
1NF - First normal form 2NF - Second normal form 3NF - Third normal form 4NF - Fourth normal form
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
Major aim of relational database design is to group attributes into relations to minimize data redundancy and reduce file storage space required by base relations. Problems associated with data redundancy are illustrated by comparing the following Staff and Branch relations with the StaffBranch relation.
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
Data Redundancy
Data Redundancy
Data Redundancy
StaffBranch relation has redundant data: details of a branch are repeated for every member of staff. In contrast, branch information appears only once for each branch in Branch relation and only branchNo is repeated in Staff relation, to represent where each member of staff works.
Update Anomalies
Relations that contain redundant information may potentially suffer from update anomalies.
Functional Dependency
Main concept associated with normalization. Functional Dependency
Describes relationship between attributes in a relation. If A and B are attributes of relation R, B is functionally dependent on A (denoted A B), if each value of A in R is associated with exactly one value of B in R.
Property of the meaning (or semantics) of the attributes in a relation. Diagrammatic representation:
Functional Dependency
Determinant of a functional dependency refers to attribute or group of attributes on left-hand side of the arrow.
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
Functional Dependency
Main characteristics of functional dependencies used in normalization:
have a 1:1 relationship between attribute(s) on left and right-hand side of a dependency; hold for all time; are nontrivial.
Functional Dependency
Complete set of functional dependencies for a given relation can be very large. Important to find an approach that can reduce set to a manageable size. Need to identify set of functional dependencies (X) for a relation that is smaller than complete set of functional dependencies (Y) for that relation and has property that every functional dependency in Y is implied by functional dependencies in X.
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
Nominate an attribute or group of attributes to act as the key for the unnormalized table.
UNF to 1NF
Identify repeating group(s) in unnormalized table which repeats for the key attribute(s).
UNF to 1NF
All key attributes defined No repeating groups in table All attributes dependent on primary key
2NF - A relation that is in 1NF and every nonprimary-key attribute is fully functionally dependent on the primary key (no partial dependency)
1NF to 2NF
Identify primary key for the 1NF relation. Identify functional dependencies in the relation. If partial dependencies exist on the primary key remove them by placing them in a new relation along with copy of their determinant.
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
3NF - A relation that is in 1NF and 2NF and in which no non-primary-key attribute is transitively dependent on the primary key.
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
Identify the primary key in the 2NF relation. Identify functional dependencies in the relation.
2NF to 3NF
If transitive dependencies exist on the primary key remove them by placing them in a new relation along with copy of their determinant.
Based on functional dependencies that take into account all candidate keys in a relation, however BCNF also has additional constraints compared with general definition of 3NF. BCNF - A relation is in BCNF if and only if every determinant is a candidate key.
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
Difference between 3NF and BCNF is that for a functional dependency A B, 3NF allows this dependency in a relation if B is a primarykey attribute and A is not a candidate key.
Whereas, BCNF insists that for this dependency to remain in a relation, A must be a candidate key. Every relation in BCNF is also in 3NF. However, relation in 3NF may not be in BCNF.
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
Figure 4.7
Dependency between attributes (for example, A, B, and C) in a relation, such that for each value of A there is a set of values for B and a set of values for C. However, set of values for B and C are independent of each other.
4NF - Example
Figure 4.7
Figure 4.9
Multivalued Dependencies (an employee can work for many services and on many projects
Deepak Gour, Faculty DBMS, School of Engineering, SPSU
Denormalization
Normalization is one of many database design goals Normalized table requirements
Additional processing Loss of system speed
Summary
We will use normalization in database design to create a set of relations in 3FN normal form:
Each entity has a unique primary key, and each attribute depends upon the primary key No partial dependency No transitive dependency