CHAPTER 1 SOIL

Al-Hafzan Abdullah Halim

DEFINITION

The simplest classification of geological deposits falls generally into two major classes to provide engineers and others with basic information which is: ROCK- which refers mainly to a hard rigid and strongly cemented deposit, and SOIL- which refers to the soft, or loose and cemented deposis

IMPORTANCE

For construction purposes Structure implementation Foundation choices Reduce the risk of soil/foundation failure

SOIL STRATUM

2 layers
Top

soil Ground soil

Top soil

150-300mm from soil surface Contains vegetation, rubbish & rotten materials Not suitable in supporting foundation/structure Usually the top soil will be cart away before construction

GROUND SOIL

Situated between top soil & rock layer The thickness of the soil varies depending on the rock formation This layer are compacted naturally which occasionally can support light construction

SOIL FORMATION

3 types of formation
Transported

soil Residual soil Organic soil

TRANSPORTED SOIL

E.g gravel, sand, silt and clay Produce by the formation of wind and water Dust flown by wind

RESIDUAL SOIL

E.g top soil & laterite weathering action on rock fragments which breaks and crushed and becomes smaller pieces

ORGANIC SOIL

E.g top soil and peat Produce by the formation of rotten vegetation and animals

ROCK FORMATION

Divided into 3 major groups:

Igneous

rocks Sedimentary rocks Metamorphic rocks

IGNEOUS ROCK

E.g basalt & granite Formed by solidification of molten materials which has ascended towards the surface from the hot lower levels of the earth crust

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

E.g-sandstone, shale, limestone Formed by deep fissures and swallow holes which are cavities formed at some time by the passage of water through soft rock.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS

E.g-slates, quartzite, marble These rocks include any sedimentary deposit or igneous rock which, after consolidation, has become altered by heat or pressure

TYPES OF SOIL

2 types of soil
Non-cohesive

soils Cohesive soils

COHESIVE SOILS

Fine grained particles are closely integrated and stick together Particle size ranges between 0.06mm or less The level of cohesiveness depends on the size, shape and water level When its wet, it is soft and when its dry it becomes hard Has a high level of moisture content Always experiences shrinkage and extension process The increasing of water level can caused soil strengths to differ Therefore the depth of the foundation should be constructed at least 1m from the earth surface

High level of water content can caused difficulty in earth excavation which will flood the construction site E.g- clay,silt, peat and laterite

NON-COHESIVE SOIL

The soil particles are not sticking to each other The particle size ranges between 0.06mm200mm Non-cohesive soils has a high value for a construction site Water are easy to flow out because of its hollow particle E.g- gravel, sands

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS

Soil classification can be done by:

Grain

size-divided into several sizes

Coarse

grain non-cohesive Fined grained cohesive Organic soil Can be done by sieving and sedimentation technique - Sieving : for non-cohesive soil such as gravel and sand - Sedimentation : for cohesive soil such as clay and silt

 Moisture

content

Moisture

content classification for cohesive soil such as clay and silt Can be classified by moisture content test or plastic limit/liquid limit test. Refer to BS 1377:1975

GROUND WATER

Usually refer to the ground water level Water usually come from rain and water penetration into the earth opening which can penetrates until 12000m Water content depends on:
Surface slopes/gradients Vegetation Weather Soil opening and penetration - Ground water content will influence construction works where it involved the stabilization and strength of the soil.

- Usually high level of water content require a much more complicated foundation system. - It will also make more difficult when water penetrates into excavation work and will obstruct workers and machineries. - Water proof retaining wall needed in such cases

SOIL CHARACTERISTIC IN RELATION TO CHOICE OF FOUNDATIONS

Soil have different attribute when load implied on them. The characteristic are:
Compressibility Permeability

Plasticity

CHOICES OF FOUNDATION
Solid chalk, sands and gravels or sand and gravels with only small proportions of clay, dense silty sands Shallow strip or pad footings as appropriate to the load bearing members of the building Uniform, firm and stiff clays -Where vegetation is insignificant -Where trees and shrubs are growing or to be planted close to the site -Where trees are felled to clear the site and construction is due to start soon afterward

-Bored piles and ground beams, or strip foundations at least 1m deep -Bored piles and ground beams

-Reinforced bored piles of sufficient length with the top 3m sleeved from the surrounding ground and with suspended floor

Soft clays, soft silty clays

Strip footing up to 1m wide if bearing capacity is sufficient, or raft Bored piles with temporary steel lining or precast or insitu piles driven to firm strata below

Peat

Mining and other subsidence area

Thin reinforced rafts for individuals houses with load bearing walls and for flexible building