Polarization

Linear, circular, and elliptical polarization

Mathematics of polarization


Uniaxial crystals


Birefringence


Polarizers
Prof. Rick Trebino
Georgia Tech
www.physics.gatech.
edu/frog/lectures
45 Polarization
{ }
{ }
0
0
( , ) Re exp[ ( )]
( , ) Re exp[ ( )]
x
y
E z t E i kz t
E z t E i kz t
e
e
=
=
Here, the complex
amplitude, E
0
, is
the same for each
component.

So the
components are
always in phase.

~
Arbitrary-Angle Linear Polarization
{ }
{ }
0
0
( , ) Re cos( ) exp[ ( )]
( , ) Re sin( ) exp[ ( )]
x
y
E z t E i kz t
E z t E i kz t
o e
o e
=
=
Here, the y-component is in phase
with the x-component,
but has different magnitude.
x
y
E-field
variation over
time (and
space)
o
Define the polarization state of a field as a 2D vector
Jones vectorcontaining the two complex amplitudes:



For many purposes, we only care about the relative values:


(alternatively normalize this vector to unity magnitude)


Specifically:
0 linear (x) polarization: E
y
/E
x
= 0
90 linear (y) polarization: E
y
/E
x
=
45 linear polarization: E
y
/E
x
= 1
Arbitrary linear polarization:

The Mathematics of Polarization
sin( )
tan( )
cos( )
y
x
E
E
o
o
o
= =
x
y
E
E
E
(
=
(

1
y
x
x
E
E
E
E
(
(
=
(
(

~ ~
~ ~
~ ~
Circular (or Helical) Polarization
The resulting E-field rotates
counterclockwise around the
k-vector (looking along k).
0
0
( , ) cos( )
( , ) sin( )
x
y
E z t E kz t
E z t E kz t
e
e
=
=
Here, the complex amplitude of
the y-component is -i times the
complex amplitude of the x-
component.

So the components are always
90 out of phase.
| | { }
| | { }
0
0
( , ) Re exp ( )
( , ) Re exp ( )
x
y
E z t E i kz t
E z t E i kz t
e
e
=
= -i
Or, more generally,
Right vs. Left Circular (or Helical) Polarization
The resulting E-field rotates
clockwise around the
k-vector (looking along k).
0
0
( , ) cos( )
( , ) sin( )
x
y
E z t E kz t
E z t E kz t
e
e
=
=
Here, the complex amplitude
of the y-component is +i times
the complex amplitude of the
x-component.

So the components are always
90 out of phase, but in the
other direction.
x
y
E-field variation
over time (and
space)
kz-et = 0
kz-et = 90
| | { }
| | { }
0
0
( , ) Re exp ( )
( , ) Re exp ( )
x
y
E z t E i kz t
E z t iE i kz t
e
e
=
= +
Or, more generally,
Unequal arbitrary-relative-phase
components yield elliptical polarization
The resulting E-field can
rotate clockwise or counter-
clockwise around the k-
vector (looking along k).
x
y
E-field variation
over time (and
space)
0 0 x y
E E where and are arbitrary
complex amplitudes.
| | { }
| | { }
0
0
( , ) Re exp ( )
( , ) Re exp ( )
x x
y y
E z t E i kz t
E z t E i kz t
e
e
=
=
0
0
( , ) cos( )
( , ) cos( )
x x
y y
E z t E kz t
E z t E kz t
e
e u
=
=
Or, more generally,
0 0
.
x y
E E = where
Circular polarization has an imaginary Jones vector y-component:






Right circular polarization:


Left circular polarization:


Elliptical polarization has both real and imaginary components:




We can calculate the eccentricity and tilt of the ellipse if we feel like it.
The mathematics of circular and
elliptical polarization
1
x
y
E
E
E
i
(
(
= =
(
(

/
y x
E E i =
/
y x
E E a bi = +
/
y x
E E i = +
When the phases of the x- and y-polarizations
fluctuate, we say the light is unpolarized.
where u
x
(t) and u
y
(t) are functions that vary on a time scale slower than
1/e, but faster than you can measure.

The polarization state (Jones vector) will be:




As long as the time-varying relative phase, u
x
(t) u
y
(t), fluctuates, the light
will not remain in a single polarization state and hence is unpolarized.
( )
{ }
( )
{ }
( , ) Re exp ( )
( , ) Re exp ( )
x x x
y y y
E z t A i kz t t
E z t A i kz t t
e u
e u
= (

(
=

1
exp ( ) ( )
y
x y
x
A
i t t
A
u u
(
(
(
(

(

In practice, the
amplitudes vary,
too!
Light with very complex polarization
vs. position is also unpolarized.
Light that has passed through cruddy stuff is often unpolarized
for this reason. Well see how this happens later.
The polarization vs. position must be unresolvable, or else, we
should refer to this light as locally polarized.
An intentionally spatially varying
polarization can be interesting.
Imagine a donut-shaped beam with radial polarization.
k
Lens
Focus
Longitudinal
electric field
at the focus!
This type of beam can also focus to a smaller spot than a beam
with a spatially uniform polarization!
A complex polarization spatial
dependence
An optical
vortex
x
y
Birefringence
The molecular "spring
constant" can be
different for different
directions.
Birefringence
The x- and y-
polarizations
can see
different
refractive
index curves.
Uniaxial crystals have an optic axis
Light with any other polarization must be broken down into its
ordinary and extraordinary components, considered
individually, and recombined afterward.
Uniaxial crystals have one
refractive index for light polarized
along the optic axis (n
e
) and
another for light polarized in
either of the two directions
perpendicular to it (n
o
).

Light polarized along the optic
axis is called the extraordinary
ray, and light polarized
perpendicular to it is called the
ordinary ray. These polarization
directions are the crystal
principal axes.
Birefringence can separate the two
polarizations into separate beams
Due to Snell's Law, light of different polarizations will bend by different
amounts at an interface.
n
o
n
e
o-ray
e-ray
Calcite
Calcite is one of the most birefringent materials known.
Birefringent Materials
How to make a polarizer
Perpendicular polarization
Incidence angle, u
i
1.0

.5

0
0 30 60 90
R
T
Parallel polarization
Incidence angle, u
i
1.0

.5

0
0 30 60 90
R
T
Well use birefringence, and well take advantage of the Fresnel
equations we derived last time.
When n
i
> n
t
, theres a steep variation in reflectivity with incidence
angle. This corresponds to a steep variation with refractive index.
Polarizers take advantage of birefringence,
Brewster's angle, and total internal reflection.
Snells Law separates the beams at the entrance. The perpendicular
polarization then goes from high index (1.66) to low (1.55) and
undergoes total internal reflection, while the parallel polarization is
transmitted near Brewster's angle.
If the gap is air, its called the Glan-Taylor polarizer.
The Glan-Thompson polarizer uses two prisms of calcite (with parallel
optical axes), glued together with Canada balsam cement (n = 1.55).
n
o
= 1.66
Cement
n = 1.55
n
e
= 1.49
n
e
= 1.49
Optic axis
Optic axis
Alternatively,
the optical axis
points out of the
screen, and the
polarizations are
also rotated.
Combine two prisms of calcite, rotated so that the ordinary
polarization in the first prism is extraordinary in the second (and
vice versa).
The perpendicular polarization goes from high index (n
o
) to low
(n
e
) and undergoes total internal reflection, while the parallel
polarization is transmitted near Brewster's angle.
Even better, rotate the second prism:
The Nicol polarizer.
n
o
= 1.66
n
o
= 1.66
n
e
= 1.49
Optic axis
Optic axis (out of page)
Brewsters
Angle
TIR
Real
Polarizers
Air-spaced polarizers
Wollaston Polarizing Beam Splitter
The ordinary and extraordinary rays have different refractive indices
and so diverge.
The Wollaston polarizing beam splitter uses two rotated
birefringent prisms, but relies only on refraction.
The Pile-of-Plates Polarizer
After numerous Brewster-angle transmissions,
mainly the parallel polarization remains.
Unfortunately, only about 10% of the perpendicular polarization
is reflected on each surface, so you need a big pile of plates!
Unpolarized
input light
Dielectric polarizers
A multi-layer coating (which uses
interference; well get to this later) can
also act as a polarizer. It still uses the
same basic ideas of TIR and Brewsters
angle.
Glass
Wire Grid Polarizer
The light can excite electrons to move along the wires, which then
emit light that cancels the input light. This cannot happen
perpendicular to the wires. Such polarizers work best in the IR.
Polaroid sheet polarizers use the same idea, but with long polymers.
Input light
contains both
polarizations
Wire grid polarizer in the visible
Using semiconductor fabrication techniques, a wire-grid polarizer was
recently developed for the visible.
The spacing is less than 1 micron.
The wires need not be very long.
Extinction coefficient > 10,000 Transmission > 99%
Hoya has designed a wire-grid polarizer for telecom applications
that uses small elongated copper particles.
The Measure of a Polarizer
The ideal polarizer will pass 100% of the desired polarization and
0% of the undesired polarization.
It doesnt exist.
The ratio of the transmitted irradiance
through polarizers oriented parallel
and then crossed is the Extinction ratio
or Extinction coefficient. Wed like the
extinction ratio to be infinity.
Type of polarizer Ext. Ratio Transmission Cost
Calcite: 10
6
> 95% $1000 - 2000
Dielectric: 10
3
> 99% $100 - 200
Polaroid sheet: 10
3
~ 50% $1 - 2
0 Polarizer
0 Polarizer
0 Polarizer
90 Polarizer
Visible wire-grid
polarizer
performance
Transmission
Extinction ratio
A polarizers performance
can vary with wavelength
and incidence angle.
The overall transmission
is also important, as is
the amount of the wrong
polarization in each
beam.