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Transmission Terminology
Transmission
communication of data by propagation and processing of signals
Data transmission occurs between a transmitter & receiver via some medium Transmission media is classified as Guided or Unguided Data must be transformed to electromagnetic waves, in bot h cases Guided medium
The waves are guided along a physical path eg. twisted pair, coaxial cable, optical fiber
Data
Data can be analog or digital Analog data are continuous and take continuous v alues Analog data can be converted to an analog or mod ulated into a digital signal Digital data have discrete states and take discrete v alues (0s and 1s) Digital data can be converted to a digital signal or modulated into an analog signal for transmission a cross a medium
Signals
Signal is the electric or electromagnetic representation of data An electromagnetic signal is generated by the transmitter and then tra nsmitted over a medium Signals can also be analog or digital Analog signal
Signal intensity varies in a smooth way over time It has infinitely many levels of intensity (values) along its path over a per iod of time There are no breaks or discontinuities in the signal e.g; speech
Digital signal
Signal intensity maintains a constant level for some period of time and th en changes to another constant level e.g; binary 1s and 0s A digital signal can have only a limited number of defined values (often 0 and 1)
A Signal is a function of time, but it can also be expressed as a functi on of frequency There are two concepts of data transmission Time domain view and frequency domain view of a signal
Analog Data
Analog data take on continuous values in some interval E.g. voice, video, temperature, and pressure are continuously varying pattern s of intensity freq range of sound wave is 20Hz-20kHz human speech spectrum range is 100Hz-7kHz Audio signals are easily and directly converted into electromagnetic signals All sound freqs, whose amplitude is measured in terms of loudness, are conv erted into electromagnetic freqs, whose amplitude is measured in volts The standard spectrum for a voice channel is 300-3400Hz
Digital Data
Digital data take on discrete values e.g. text, integers, etc Textual data cannot be easily stored or transmitted by data processi ng and communication systems Communication systems are designed for binary data Therefore some text codes have been devised by which characters a re represented by a sequence of bits Commonly used text code: IRA (international reference alphabet) IRA-encoded characters are using 8 bits per character 8th bit is a parity bit used for error detection Thus binary data is generated by terminals and computers etc and t hen converted into digital voltage pulses for transmission The signal uses two constant dc components (voltage levels) 0 or 1
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Analog Signals
Digital Signals
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(continuous)
(discrete)
Non-periodic signal
pattern not repeated over time Both analog and digital signals can be periodic or non-periodic (a) shows periodic continuous signal (sine wave) (b) shows periodic discrete signal (square wave) In data comm., we commonly use periodic analog signals and no n-periodic digital signals
Cont.. example
Sine Wave
1) Sine wave is the fundamental periodic analog signal Its change over the course of a cycle is smooth and consistent It is a continuous rolling flow Each cycle consists of a single are above the time axis followed by a single are below it (shown in previous fig.) It is represented by three parameters: Peak amplitude (A)
Highest intensity (value) of a signal over time Proportional to the energy it carries Measured in volts Number of cycles per second Rate of change of signal (rate at which signal repeats) Measured in Hertz (Hz) period = time required for one repetition (one cycle) =T T = 1/f or f = 1/T Period and frequency are the inverse of each other
2)
frequency (f)
Cont..
Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time Change in a short span of time means high freq Change over a long span of time means low freq If signal does not change at all, its freq is zero Any electromagnetic signal consists of a collection of periodic analog signals (sine waves) at different amplitude, frequencies, and phases
Cont..
3) Phase ()
Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0 Measure of the relative position in time within a single period of signal Phase is the fractional part t/T of the period T through which t has adva nced relative to an arbitrary origin If we think of the wave as something that can be shifted backward or f orward along the time axis, phase describes the amount of that shift The origin is usually taken as the last previous passage through zero is sometimes referred to as a phase-shift, because it represents a "shif t" from zero phase. Phase shift is any change that occurs in the phase of one signal, or in t he phase difference between two or more signals.
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Cont..
Phase is measured in degrees or radians 360 is 2 rad; 1 is 2/360 rad; and 1 rad is 360/( 2 ) A phase shift of 360 corresponds to a shift of a co mplete period a phase shift of 180 corresponds to a shift of onehalf of a period; and a phase shift of 90 corresponds to a shift of one-q uarter of a period (see Figure).
Wavelength ()
Wavelength of a signal is the distance traveled by one cycle Distance between two points of corresponding phase of two consecutive cycles Wavelength can be calculated if one is given the propagatio n speed and the period of the signal. Assume signal is traveling with velocity v then = vT or equivalently = v/ f wavelength is normally measured in micrometers (m)
Cont..
The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we are dealing with more than one sine wave. Figure below shows three sine waves, each with different amplitude and f requency. All can be represented by three spikes in the frequency domain
Composite Signals
A single frequency sine wave is not useful in data communications If we had only one single sine wave to convey a conversation over the phone, it would make no sense and carry no information. We would just hear a buzz we need to send a composite signal to communicate data. Any composite signal is a combination of simple sine waves with different freq uencies, amplitudes, and phases as shown in fig (c) The fig (a) fig (b) shows the components of fig (c) which are just simple sine w aves of frequencies f and 3f Their sine waves are: Fig (a): s(t) = sin(2ft) Fig (b): s(t) = (1/3) sin(2(3f)t) The second freq is the integer multiple of the first freq. Thus first freq component is called Fundamental freq. The period of the composite signal is equal to the period of the fundamental fre q as in fig (c) The composite signal generated from fig (a) & (b) will be: Fig (c): s(t) = (4/ ) [sin(2ft) + (1/3) sin(2(3f)t)]
Fig (d): Frequency-domain decomposition of the comp osite signal of Fig (c)
Example (Cont..)
There are an infinite number of simple sine frequencies (wa ves) in a non-periodic composite signal created by a microp hone A normal human being can create a continuous range of freq uencies between 0 and 4 kHz Frequency decomposition of this signal produces a continuo us curve. There are an infinite number of frequencies between 0.0 and 4000.0 (real values). The height of the vertical line is the amplitude of the corresp onding frequency
Bandwidth of a signal
Width of the spectrum (diff. b/w max & min freq of the spectrum) In case of fig (c), the bandwidth is 2f
Effective bandwidth
Most of the composite signal energy is contained in a relatively nar row band of frequencies
Digital Signal
An electronic signal transmitted as binary code that can be either the presence or absence of current, high and low voltages or short pulses at a particular fre quency An arbitrary bit stream; 1 can be encoded as a high (positive) voltage and 0 a s low (non-positive) voltage Digital format is ideal for electronic communication as the string of 1s and 0s can be transmitted by a series of "on/off" signals represented by pulses of ele ctricity or light. A pulse "on" can represent a 1, and the lack of a pulse "off" can represent a 0 Most digital signals are non periodic A digital signal can have more than two levels In this case, we can send more than 1 bit for each level (see fig) (a) shows 1 bit per level (b) shows 2 bits per level If a signal has L levels then no. of bits per level = log2 L
Bit Length
The concept of wavelength is for an analog signal: that is the distance one cycle occupies on the trans mission medium. For a digital signal Bit length is used instead of wa velength. Bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the tr ansmission medium.
Baseband Transmission
Means sending a digital signal over a channel without changing to an analog signal. See Fig below Baseband transmission requires a low-pass channel It is a channel with a bandwidth that starts from zero freq.. This is, the entire bandwidth of a cable connecting two computers is one single channel (a dedicated medium) Baseband transmission of a digital signal that preserves the entire sha pe (bandwidth) of the digital signal is possible only if we have a lowpass channel with an infinite or very wide bandwidth e.g; coaxial cabl e or fiber optic It will also be needed to send bits faster
Example
Bandwidth
Used in two context 1) Bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of frequencies in a c omposite signal or the range of frequencies that a channel c an pass. If a telephone channel can transmit frequencies from 300 Hz to 3400Hz, it has a BW of 3100 Hz. 2) Bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the speed of bit trans mission in a channel or link The bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet network is a maximum of 100 Mbps. This means that this network can send 100 Mbps. An increase in bandwidth in hertz means an increase in ban dwidth in bits per second
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Voiceband:
This is the range of frequencies transmitted over a norm al telephone network channel i.e. 4000 Hz.
Wideband:
Channels which have a BW exceeding 4000 Hz are usu ally placed under this category.
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Other Terms
Pass Band:
a particular range of frequencies which can be passed through the transmission equipment. e.g a telegraph circuit could have a pass band between 1200 to 14 00Hz, and a BW of 200Hz.
Cut-off frequencies:
The cut-off frequencies of the telegraph channel above are 1200 H z and 1400 Hz. A frequency at which the attenuation of a device begins to increas e sharply, such as the limiting frequency below which a traveling wave in a given mode cannot be maintained in a waveguide, or the frequency above which an electron tube loses efficiency rapidly. Also known as critical frequency or corner frequency.
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Throughput
It is a measure of how fast we can actually send data t hrough a network. Although, bandwidth in bits per second and throughpu t seem the same, but they are different. In other words, the bandwidth is a potential measurem ent of a link; the throughput is an actual measurement of how fast we can send data. E.g; we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the devices connected to the end of the link may h andle only 256 kbps. This means that we cannot send more than 256 kbps through this link.
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Transmission Impairments
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perf ect Thus signal received may differ from signal transmitted causi ng:
For analog signals - degradation of signal quality For digital signals - bit errors (1becomes 0 or 0 becomes1)
Attenuation
When signal strength falls off with distance due to medium imp erfection is called Attenuation received signal strength must be: strong enough to be detected sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error Solution: Strength can be increased using amplifiers/repeaters To show that a signal has lost or gained strength, engineers use the unit of the decibel. The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at two different points (P1 & P2). Note that the decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and po sitive if a signal is amplified.
Cont..
The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the same. (See Figure) It only occurs in guided media It is particularly critical for digital data Because some signal components of one bit position will run over into oth er bit positions, causing inter-symbol interference
Jitters
Due to variation in phase delay We can roughly say that jitter is a problem if different pack ets of data encounter different delays and the application us ing the data at the receiver site is time-sensitive (audio and video data) For example, If the delay for the first packet is 20 ms, for t he second is 45 ms, and for the third is 40 ms, then the real -time application that uses the packets suffers jitter Attenuation, distortion and the modulation of the telephone channel causes variation in the propagation delay at any sin gle signal This is known as Jitter.
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Noise
Additional undesired signals added between transmitter and receiver Thermal noise
Due to random motion of electrons in a wire which creates an extra signal It is a function of temperature Uniformly distributed across the bandwidth Present in all electronic devices and transmission media Also called white noise Particularly significant for satellite communication
Noise
Intermodulation noise
When signal at different frequencies share the same transmis sion medium Produce new signals at a freq that is the sum, difference, or multiple of the two original frequencies sharing the same me dium
Crosstalk noise
Crosstalk is the interference of one wire on the other. A signal from one line is picked up by another Unwanted coupling between signal paths Due to electrical coupling between nearby twisted pairs
Noise
Impulse noise
It is an irregular noise spike (a signal with high energy in a ve ry short time) Such as short clicks and crackles with no loss of intelligibility Due to the fault in system, external electromagnetic interferen ce e.g; power lines, lightning, and so on It is of short duration and high amplitude A minor annoyance for analog data But a major source of error in digital data a noise spike could corrupt many bits
Noise
Echo noise
On some very long circuits, mismatching of the lines ca uses the signals to be reflected back to the speaker after a slight delay. To overcome this, echo suppressors or echo cancellers a re fitted to the line so that speech is being transmitted o nly in one direction at a time.
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Cont..
However if multilevel coding (modulation) is used, the capacity of the link becomes: C= 2W log2L Where L= no. of discrete signals or voltage levels. If we use 3-bit encoding scheme , 23=8=L;and W=3000; then C = 2 (3000) (log28) = 6000(3) = 18000bps But we know that increasing the levels of a signal may reduce the reliability of the system.
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Example:
Data is to be transmitted over the PSTN (public s witched telephone network) using a transmission s cheme with 16 levels per signaling element. If the BW of the PSTN is 3000 Hz, work out the Nyquis t maximum data transfer rate (C) Solution: L=16 means we use 4-bit encoding sche me and W=3000; then C = 2 (3000) (log2 16) = 6000(4) = 24000bps
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S/N is actually the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not wanted (noise). A high S/N means the signal is less corrupted by noise; a lo w S/N means the signal is more corrupted by noise. Because S/N is the ratio of two powers, it is often described in decibel units and is called Signal-to-Noise ratio (SNR) as:
SNR = l0logl0 (S/N ) dB
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Example:
Assuming that a PSTN has a BW of 3000Hz and a typical signal to noise power ratio of 20 dB, deter mine the maximum data rate that can be achieved.
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Solution:
SNR = signal-to-noise-ratio=10 log10(S/N) therefore: 20 = 10 log10(S/N) 2 = log10(S/N) 102 = S/N; Hence: S/N = 100; now : C = W log2(1+ S/N) bps Therefore: C = 3000 x log2(1+ 100) bps C = 3000 [ log2 (101)] bps C = 19,976 bps
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Summary
Looked at:
Analog vs Digital signals Simple vs Composite signals Periodic vs Non-Periodic signals Frequency, wavelength, spectrum & bandwidth Transmission of digital signals Bit rate, bit length, Baud rate Channel Capacity Transmission impairments Noiseless and Noisy channels
A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with r espect to time 0. What is its phase in degrees and radians?
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If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine wave s with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have a maxi- mum amplitude of 10 V
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Solution Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the bandwidth . Then B =fh - it = 900 - 100 =800 Hz
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