ISLAM: KNOWLEDGE AND CIVILIZATION

(UNGS 2040)

STANDARD CONTENTS
Department of General Studies, 2008

Definition of Knowledge

Al-ilm (/ )Knowledge

Al-ilm ()
The arrival (Husul: )in the soul of the

meaning of a thing or an object of knowledge and the arrival (wusul: (of the soul at the meaning of a thing or object of knowledge
(al-Jurjani:160-161)
3

.cont.,
Realization of the meanings of

things (Al-Ghazzali) Realization of something in its true nature through different levels of understanding and in agreement with the facts or true to nature. (textbook, 4)
4

cont.,
To know, to understand, to

perceive, to be familiar and acquainted with things. A firm belief that accords with the reality of things (:74) ) 19(. - Theology ( ,)Principles of Jurisprudence( ) etc.
5

Opposite of
:Conjecture
Uncertainty
Not supported with decisive proofs It might accord with the reality and it

might not

.cont.,
: doubt
: ignorance : foolishness :misguidance

Degrees of Certainty
Certainty, conviction ()/ Accords with the reality
: knowledge

Certainty by observation
certainty through knowledge Certainty through experience

Importance of Knowledge
1. Knowledge is a requirement for the

fulfillment of mans obligations as a khalifah on earth. Allah says:

 (03) (13) (23) (33)

01

2. The first revelation to the Messenger of Allah is about seeking knowledge and revealing scientific knowledge:

* * )5-1:* * (

11

Cont.,
Read! In the name of the Lord and Cherisher, who created- created man, out of a mere clot of congealed blood. Proclaim! And your Lord is most Bountiful- He who taught the use of the pen, taught man that which he knew not (96:1-5)
[read, teach , pen]

12

cont.,
3. Islam is a religion based upon knowledge. 4. The text of the Quran is full of verses inviting man to use his intellect, to ponder, to think and to learn. 5.The total number of verses in which ilm or its derivatives and associated words are used is 704.
13

cont.,
6. The main miracle and sign of authenticity of prophethood of Mohammed ( ) was a book of knowledge; The Quran.

14

cont.,
7.The Prophet ( ) made seeking knowledge obligatory on Muslims (men and women):

Seeking knowledge is obligatory on every Muslim.

15

cont.,
8. Knowledge is the way through which people can recognize Allah, fear him, and discover the truth. )162 : ( But those among them who are well-grounded in knowledge, and the believers, believe in what has been revealed to you and what was revealed before you
16

cont.,
(6 : (

And those who are knowledgeable see that the revelation sent down to you from the Lord is the Truth, and that it guides to the Path of Allah who is Exalted and Worthy of all praise.

17

cont.,
9. Knowledge elevates the status and position of its bearer and makes difference between him and ignorant.
)11 :(

Allah will raise up, to high ranks those of you who believe and who have been granted Knowledge
18

cont.,
) (:51

We gave knowledge to David and Solomon: and they both said: "Praise be to Allah, Who has favoured us above many of His subjects who believe!"
19

cont.,
(01) ) (11) (

We bestowed grace on David and We made the iron soft for him. Make coats of mail, balance well the rings of chain armour, and work righteousness; for be sure I see all that you do."

20

cont.,
) 9: (

Say: are those equal, those who know and those who do not know?

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Purpose of knowledge

Divinely

Worldly

To recognize God

To benefit man

Pleasure of God

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Week Two

Classification of Knowledge

Limitations (a) Absolute (perfect) knowledge: this is the knowledge of God who knows the reality, essence and details of all things. (b) Limited knowledge: The knowledge given to His creations;

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cont.,
angels, prophets, human beings, jinn, and animals.

25

..cont.,
Limited knowledge:

(i) Gifted knowledge: a. Instinctive knowledge (natural): it is imparted in the very nature of the creation. b. Revealed/Sacred knowledge: the knowledge that Almighty God reveals to human beings.
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(ii) Acquired Knowledge Gained through effort by way of reflection, senses and experience. (a) Recommended (praiseworthy) i- Fard ayn ii. Fard kifayah (b) Prohibited (blameworthy) -Magic (kindly refer to slides 46-48)

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General Classification of Knowledge in Islam

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General classification of Knowledge in Islam

Absolute Knowledge

Limited Knowledge

Gifted Knowledge

Acquired Knowledge

Sacred

Instinct (ilham)

Praiseworthy

Blame worthy

By external influence
Fard Ain Fard Kifayah
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By itself

Al-Ghazzalis Criteria for Classification of sciences :

1. Theoretical and practical 2. Presential and acquired 3. Religious and intellectual 4. Individual obligatory and communal obligatory

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Classification of Knowledge
According to al-Ghazali

Theoretical
Presential Religious
Fard ayn (Personal Obligatory Knowledge)

Practical
Attained Intellectual
Fard kifayah(Collective Obligatory Knowledge)

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Al-Ghazzalis Criteria for Classification of sciences

1. Theoretical and practical (philosophers) Theoretical: to know the states of beings as they are( to realize/ comprehend the reality of beings; celestial & terrestrial) Practical: deals with mans actions To find out what is useful to mankind in this life as well as in the Hereafter
32

.Cont.,
2. Presential & acquired (tasawwuf) (the mode of knowing) Presential : intuitive, contemplative spiritual experience - revelation : empirical, rational, logical

Acquired

33

.Cont.,
Which one is better? Al-Ghazzali: the presential is superior to the acquired, It is free from errors & doubt, certainty on spiritual truths This is true with the revelation and intuition received by the prophets

34

 The intuitive knowledge

claimed by people other than prophets may not be taken for granted unless it is judged in light of the established principles of Islam

35

.Cont.,
3. Religious and intellectual (the source) Religious (transmitted sciences): Acquired from revelation/ prophets 1. Roots )Quran, sunnah, consensus( 2. Branches (law and ethics) 3. Ancillary sciences (grammar and lexicography) 4. Complementary sciences )Qiraat, commentary, history) Intellectual: attained by human intellect alone
36

.Cont.,
4. Fard Ayn and Fard kifayah (the need for learning) Fard ayn: What should be learned by each and every Muslim. Individual responsibilities Things which cant be done on behalf of others
37

.Cont.,
Beliefs, worship, halal and

haram, core moral values, how to discharge ones responsibilities towards others )mans obligations to family and society), necessary skills for daily life.
38

.Cont.,
Fard kifayah :
- the communitys needs that can be performed

by a sufficient group on behalf of others. - collective responsibilities Religious sciences: knowledge that is not needed for daily practice of Islam. Intellectual knowledge: all types of knowledge needed for the welfare of the society in this life

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.Cont
Praiseworthy sciences: Enhances human well being and the environment within the boundaries outlined by shariah All sciences which are useful, beneficial and satisfy the requirements of science.

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Blameworthy sciences: A science which does not meet the requirement of science, or it is purely or usually harmful. Blameworthy by its nature by an external factor

41

.Cont
Magic: It is defined as seeking the help of demons to perform something harmful against somebody or showing something to an audience, which is contrary to reality. Reasons why magic is prohibited in Islam: 1) It is an act of blasphemy (kufr). Allah says in the Holy Quran:
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 And

when there came to them a Messenger from Allah confirming what was with them, a party of those who were given the scripture threw away the book of Allah behind their backs as if they did not know. And they followed what the devils gave out falsely of magic of the reign of Solomon; for Solomon did not disbelieve but the devils disbelieved, teaching men magic and such things that came down at Babylon to the two angels Harut and Marut, but neither of these two (angles) taught anyone (such
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things) until they had said: we are only for trial, so don't disbelieve. And from them (magicians) people learn that through which they would cause separation between a person and his spouse, but they could not thus harm anyone except by Allah's leave; and they learn that which harms them rather than profits them. And indeed they knew that its practitioner would have no share in the Hereafter. And how bad indeed was that for which they sold their own selves if they but knew. (2:101-102).
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 2) According to the following authentic hadith,

magic is a deadly act: The Prophet (s.a.w) said: Avoid the seven deadly acts which are: ascribing partners to God, magic, killing the human self which Allah prohibited except with right, eating usury (riba), devouring the orphans wealth, defecting from the battle-field (without a justified reason) and slandering chaste, unwary believing women.
45

 Magic being harmful and evil act, Allah has

told us to seek His protection against it: Say I seek refuge in the in the Lord of daybreak From the evil of that which he created; From the evil of the darkness when it is intense, and from the evil of malignant witchcraft, And from the evil of the envious when he envies. (Surah al-Falaq)

46

Differences between magic and miracles (mujizat)

Magic is from devils (see the above Quranic

verse: 2:101-102)while miracles are from Allah. On the other hand, miracles are real while magic is deceptive; it is covering the truth with falsehood). Because miracles are from Allah, they could only be performed by Prophets while magic, which is from devils, can be performed by anyone who associates himself with the devil.
47

 Horoscope

Not only magic is prohibited in Islam but also

horoscope or reading ones palm to foretell the future. The Holy Quran affirms that no one knows the future or the unseen except Allah: He knoweth the Unseen as well as that which is Open. (6:73) With Him are the keys of the Unseen, the treasures that none knoweth but He... (6:59)
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 The Holy Quran also asserts that not

even Muhammad knows the unseen: If I had the knowledge of the unseen, I should have secured abundance for myself, and no evil would have touched me. (7:188).

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 The Prophet (s.a.w) said: Whoever

goes to a fortune teller (a soothe sayer) or a diviner and believes him, has, in fact, disbelieved in what has been revealed to Muhammad.

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.Cont..
Example: Horoscope Capricorn: (Dec 23 - Jan 20) Todays stars encourage you to be more diplomatic and inclusive in your relations with others Aquarius: (Jan 21 Feb 19) On the Zodiacs Day of Metamorphosis, you need to transform ideals into reality, and turn dreams into concrete plans. If you work patiently towards your goals, you can achieve the longterm success you are looking for.

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Cont.,
Astrology: It is the study of the positions and aspects of celestial bodies. Muslims scholars agree that astrology is a prohibited field to deal with. For example, Imam Ibn Taymiyah said: Astrology that is concerned with studying the positions and aspects of celestial bodies in the belief that they have an influence on the course of natural earthly occurrences and human affairs is prohibited by Almighty Allahs Book, the Sunnah, and the unanimous agreement of the Muslim scholars.
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 Ibn `Uthaymeen, said: Astrology is a

kind of sorcery and fortune-telling. It is forbidden because it is based on illusions, not on concrete facts. There is no relation between the movements of celestial bodies and what takes place on the Earth.

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 During the Prophets lifetime, it happened that

the sun eclipsed on the same day when the Prophets son Ibrahim died. The people then thought that it had eclipsed because of the Prophets sons death. On knowing this, the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) led them in the Eclipse Prayer and then delivered them a speech saying: The sun and moon are but signs of Allah; they do not eclipse because so-and-so died or was born.

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 The above hadith indicates that the

Prophet (s.a.w) denied all relation between the movements of the heavenly bodies and events on the Earth.

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 Ibn Abbas (may Allah be pleased with

him and his father) reported that Allahs Messenger (s.a.w) said: He who has acquired some knowledge of astrology has acquired some knowledge of sorcery; the more he acquires of the former the more he acquires of the latter. (Reported by Ahmad, Abu Dawud, and Ibn Majah)

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 Commenting on the above hadith, al-

Shawkani said that the Prophet (s.a.w) compared between astrology and sorcery because sorcery was known to be forbidden; and so, he who would get some knowledge of astrology would do something forbidden and would be sinful.

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 To sum up, astrology is based on lies and

deceit; it has no scientific basis. The astrologists usage of computers to convince people that what they do is technological and scientific is nothing but deceit. There is no scientific proof that there is a relationship between the appearance of a star in a specific time and the character and behavior of someone born at that time.

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Conclusion

Sciences are inter-related, and none of them can exclude the others. Humanities, natural sciences, and the religious sciences unite to produce true understanding of this world and the causes behind its existence. Religious scholars are in need of philosophical and natural sciences as much as scientists are in need of the religious sciences.
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Natural and philosophical sciences are to enable the Muslim to explore, exploit and get a better insight into what Allah has created in this universe. Religious sciences are to guide people to understand the reality of this life, their origins and their mission. And to set the moral and legal guidelines that should be observed by human beings for a meaningful and better life.
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Week Three

Sources and Means of Knowledge

1. Revelation (): 2. Reason () 3. Nature/ physical world )) 4. Five Senses () 5. Intuition ()

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The Quran as a Source of Knowledge

An introduction to the the Quran Definition Quran is the Book revealed from Allah to

His Messenger Muhammad (saw) as written in masahif and transmitted to us from him through an authentic continuous narration

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Definition analysis: - Quran is the pure speech of Allah (alNisa:42) - Only the Allahs speech revealed to Muhammad - It is an exposition of all things (tibyan li kulli shay( - As guidance and mercy - Nothing is neglected (al-Nahl:89)
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 The Quran is the Arabic words as

well as their meanings (translation is not a Quran) Transmitted to us by way of [tawatur] (continuous narration by a large number of people in each part of the chain of narration)

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Revelation & Recording of the Quran a) Revelation of the Quran The Quran was transmitted directly from Allah (swt) to the Messenger of Allah through Gibril (not a mere inspiration) The Quran was not revealed to the Messenger of Allah all at once. It was revealed to him in stages and sometimes in accordance with incidents faced by Muslim community.

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The wisdom behind revealing it by stages

1. To allow people to memorize, understand and implement it gradually. (106 : ( It is a Quran which we have divided into parts from time to time in order that you might recite it to men at intervals (17: 106)
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2.To strengthen the heart of the Messenger of Allah (saw), give him courage and moral support to overcome the difficulties and challenges he was facing. Allah said:
)32 : (

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 Those who reject faith say: "Why is

not the Quran revealed to him all at once? It is revealed in stages so that We may strengthen your heart thereby, and We have rehearsed it to you in slow, well-arranged stages, gradually. (25: 32)

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3. Live interaction between the divine text and the socio-political reality and daily practice of the people. Some verses came to deal with: some situations faced by the Messenger of Allah; solve problems faced by Muslim community; respond to the challenges put by disbelievers; correct the mistakes committed by the Muslim community, etc.
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 Those incidents, cases, and

questions are called occasions for revelation ) ( and they help those who came later in a better understanding and implementation of those verses. The period of revelation lasted for around 23 years.
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The Recording of the Quran The Messenger of Allah used to memorize the verses revealed to him then recite them for his companions who used to memorize them There were scribes who used to record the verses after their revelation
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 The original copies of the written

records were preserved in the house of the Messenger of Allah. While some other scribes would record the verses for themselves and preserve them for their own use.
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 The order of the verses within each surah as

well as the order of the surahs was directed by Jibril. During each month of Ramadan Jibril used to recite what was revealed in its order with the Messenger of Allah. During the time of Abu Bakr the Quran was compiled in a single official copy. The suggestion came after the battle of Yamamah.

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The Quran and the other Revealed Books

Universality: The previous Books were local for specific people. Quran as the last revealed Book and a universal message for all mankind needs to be comprehensive and eternally preserved.

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To you we sent the Scripture in truth, confirming the scripture that came before it, and a watcher over it. So, judge between them by what Allah has revealed

)48 : (

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2. The way of preservation The people of each Book were entrusted with guarding it against any distortion or manipulation
... (: 44)

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It was We who revealed the Torah; therein was guidance and light. By its standard have been judged the Jews, by the prophets who bowed to Allah's will, by the rabbis and the priests; for to them was entrusted the protection of Allah's Book, and they were witnesses thereto )5: 44)

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 If they fail to do so, Allah sends another prophet to

take people back to the right way. Since Muhammad (saw) was the last Messenger, Allah (swt) assumed the responsibility of guarding and preserving His last Book. )9 : ( We have, without doubt, sent down the Message; and We will assuredly guard it against any manipulation or change.

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Preservation of the Quran The way Quran was preserved: The Quran was made public from the very beginning. The Quran was fully recorded from the time it was revealed. The Quran was preserved in the original form (same language, same words). The assurance from God that the Quran will be preserved till the Day of Judgment.

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 )42-41 : (

And indeed it is a Book of exalted power. Falsehood cannot come at it from before it or from behind it. (It is) a revelation from the Wise, the Owner of Praise.

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 No one can alter or change any part of the

Quran; not even the Messenger of Allah himself. (34) )46( (44) (54) .)47 : (

This is a Message sent down from the Lord of the worlds. And if the Messenger were to invent any sayings in our name, we should certainly seize him by his right hand, and we should certainly then cut off the artery of his heart: Nor could any of you protect him from that.

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The Characteristics of the Quran 1- Guidance for and mercy to believers

)2 : (

This is the book; in it is guidance, sure, without doubt, to those who fear Allah.

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 )52 :(

For We had certainly sent unto them a Book, based on knowledge, which We explained in detail, a guide and a mercy to all who believe.

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2. Spiritual/ social healer )57 : (

O mankind! there has come to you a direction from your Lord and a healing for the (diseases) in your hearts, and for those who believe, a Guidance and a Mercy.

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3- Light

)157 : (

So it is those who believe in him (the Messenger), honour him, help him, and follow the Light which is sent down with him, it is they who will prosper.

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" )8 :(

Believe, therefore, in Allah and His Messenger, and in the Light which We have sent down. And Allah is well acquainted with all that you do.

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4- Preacher for believers

)138 : (

Here is a plain statement to men, a guidance and instruction to those who fear Allah!

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5- Revealing reality and clarifying doubts Ta. Sin. These are verses of the Quran, a Book that makes things clear.

)1 : (

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 )15 :( O People of the Book! there has come to you Our Messenger, revealing to you much that you used to hide in the Book, and passing over much (that is now unnecessary): There has come to you from Allah a (new) light and a perspicuous Book.

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6- Miraculous
The Quran is the main miracle of

the Messenger of Allah and the main proof of the authenticity of his prophethood. The miracles contained in it are the proof of its authenticity as the real Book of Allah
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 Its miracle is in terms of:

i. Structure ii. Meaning (the knowledge contained in it: historical events, prediction of what will happen in the future, and scientific facts.
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Challenging the Unbelievers

The miracle is manifested in a challenge to all

mankind to produce: a. Another book similar to it: (33) . (43) Or they say: He has invented it? Nay, but they do not believe! Then let them produce a speech like it, if they are truthful.

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b. Ten chapters similar to those of the Quran .) (31) ( Or they say: He has invented it! Say: Then bring ten surahs, the like thereof, invented, and call on everyone you can beside Allah, if you are truthful!

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c. One surah similar to those of the Quran . (32) And if you are in doubt concerning that which We reveal to our Messenger (Muhammad), then produce a surah like one thereof, and call your gods and supporters beside Allah if you are truthful.

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Types of Knowledge in the Quran The Universal Book Islam is the last and universal religion; Human societies are always open for evolution and development. The Quran should: Meet the needs of all human beings in different places and different times.

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To be able to do so, it should: Give clear and detailed discourse on what is important for human life and cant be known through human reasoning only (beliefs and ibadat) Set the core values and principles which guide human life to the right way, and safeguard it against any corruption or deviation from such a way. Be flexible to accommodate the evolution and development of human life and societies.
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 Regarding human lifes aspects which are subject

to change and development, the Quran , generally, sets norms, standards and universal values which suit all peoples and all times. These values and norms should not be subject to any alteration or change to ensure the prevalence of righteousness and justice (immutable values and norms).

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 In light of these norms, people

are given freedom to innovate and adopt whatever systems, procedures, etc they may consider as good for them as long as they dont breach those norms and values.
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Physical and Natural Sciences The Quran deals with those things which are needed to be known and may not be realized by man or may not be understood accurately (man would speculate about them only) Such as: - The origin of mankind, the substance and the way of his first creation, his first acquisition of the basic knowledge.

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- The origin of the earth and the heavens In other fields such as:

- astronomy - Geology, - Physics, - Embryology The Quran just gives some references for the following purposes:

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The aims of scientific references in the Quran

It is not to give people details and teach them

natural and physical sciences. They are signs to prove: - The existence of God - The omnipotence and power of God - The weakness of men compared to

the power of the Creator

102

Cont.,

- Indebtedness of mankind to Allah

for all what we have in life. - The authenticity of Prophets and revealed Books i.e. this Quran comes from Allah and it is impossible for a human being, especially at the time of Muhammad ( .) to compose it.
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 For the Muslim who reads and

understands these references, they .serve to strengthen his or her faith

( :191).

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Those who remember and praise Allah, standing, sitting, and lying down on their sides, and contemplate the wonders of creation in the heavens and the earth, (with the thought): "Our Lord! not for naught have you created all this! Glory to you! Give us salvation from the Penalty of the Fire. (3: 191)

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 For the non-Muslim who

questions the authenticity or authorship of the Quran , these references provide some interesting answers.

: ( )53

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Soon will We show them Our Signs in the (farthest) horizons, and within themselves, until it becomes manifest to them that it is the Truth. Is it not enough that your Lord does witness all things? [41:53]

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How should we deal with these scientific facts?

They should be used for the aforesaid things.
They can be used to have a better understanding

of those verses dealing with natural phenomena compared to the way they were understood by early Muslims.

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 We should not over-emphasize the scientific

miracles to the extent that we hurry to relate each new scientific theory to the verses of the Quran . Such an act may lead to misinterpreting the texts of the Quran and changing the interpretation from time to time. This may be counterproductive and cause some confusion especially among non-Muslims.

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b) Religious, human and social sciences Belief: (Revelation is the only source) The Concept of God The existence of God; the Creator and Lord of this universe. The concept of tawhid (Unity of God) Since the concept of God was not new to mankind, the Quran focuses on correcting the prevalent concepts of God and demonstrating the Unity of God, His omnipotence and knowledge, etc.
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The Concept of Prophethood God used to send a prophet to every people A brief history of prophets (some names mentioned) Revelation Some revealed books: Suhuf / Ibrahim, Zabur/ Dawud, Torah /Musa, Injil/ Gospel/ Esa Angels Their nature, character, position and relation with God (not his sons or daughters)

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Day of Judgment Its existence, what will happen on that day, Jannah, Jahannam No specific date is given for its happening Ibadat (worship) Revelation the only source. The Quran sets the basics of ibadat and the Prophet gives details

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Morality Revelation the main source The Quran sets universal ethical norms and values Obedience and submission to God, justice, benevolence, kindness, generosity, brotherhood, honesty, truthfulness, sincerity, trust (amanah), forbearance, patience, tolerance and forgiveness, inviting/encouraging people to do good, and preventing/ discouraging them from doing bad (munkar)
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Human and social relations Revelation is the main source The Quran deals with the main principles of these relations: Relationship among family members - between husbands and wives - between parents and children - marriage, divorce, inheritance Relations with relatives

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 Relations with neighbours Social relations and interaction

Relations between genders

Etiquettes and manners Relations with non-Muslims

Relations with animals

Halal & haram: (Revelation is the only source) Food, drinks, clothes
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Law: - Family law - Criminal law - Procedural law - Commercial law - International law

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Economic system (Revelation provides guidance to attain and maintain justice) Islam sets some norms and principles along with some restrictions to ensure the observance of those norms and principles (prohibition of riba, uncertain contracts, etc.)
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 Zakat is imposed to secure the

minimum economic and social justice, Rich people are exhorted to spend and promised to be rewarded for that. Social welfare (59: 7)

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Political system The Quran sets norms and principles The establishment of a government/ central authority and the duties of subjects to obey its commands
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 The governance should be based on

consultation ()and the right of people to select their leaders. The format of )(and government are left to the choice of people and are open for development.

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History and Civilization The origin of this universe The Quran states that this universe was created by Allah, and gives short description of that creation The origin of mankind - The Quran states that the first man )Adam( was created by God from dust/ clay (15: 26), (15: 28-29), (17: 61), (23: 12), (32: 7), (32: 9), 38: 71-72) - Eve was created for Adam (4: 1), (7: 189), (39: 6)
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- Adam was taught the basic knowledge by God (2: 30-33) - When Adam and his wife, mistakenly, disobeyed the commands of God, they were sent down from Jannah (Paradise) to the earth where they and their children settled.

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 History of Messengers of Allah

- The Quran gives a brief account of the history of the most significant Messengers. - The Quran does not focus on the details of that history, instead it focuses on the lessons that should be learned from those events.

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- The Quran pays enough attention to

civilizational studies by examining the patterns of rise and fall of civilizations. - The Quran wants Muslims to learn from human experience. - The aim of this is to guide Muslims how to build their civilization and guard it against social diseases that may lead to its fall and collapse.

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How should we deal with the Quran ?

Quran is

an authoritative text that should be followed and implemented by all Muslims. Those texts which are clear and selfexplanatory should be implemented without any further examination. Those texts which are open for interpretation and may impart more than one meaning can be examined and construed based on the following principles:
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 Grouping of similar texts/ statements which

talk on one topic/category Analysis and understanding of each text/ statement in its components and context Identification of the rules which unify the various categories Identification of the general rules and purposes which govern the interaction/ interrelation of various categories.

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The Sunnah as a Source of Knowledge

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Literal Meaning: Sunnah ) )means a clear path, an established course of conduct, the pattern of life, a precedent and custom. The word sunnah and its plural sunan have been used in the Quran sixteen times. In all these instances, sunnah has been used to imply an established practice or course of conduct.

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 It may be a good example or a bad one, and it

may be set by an individual, a sect or a .community

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Whosoever originates in Islam any good way/ precedent (good sunnah) has its reward and the reward of whoever acts upon it till the Day of Judgment. And whosoever originates in Islam a bad way/ precedent (bad sunnah) bears its burden and the burden of whoever acts upon it till the Day of Judgment

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 The opposite of sunnah is bid`ah

(innovation), which is characterized by lack of precedent and continuity with the past. Technical meaning: a. The acts, sayings and approvals of the Messenger of Allah.
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Kinds of Sunnah with respect to the channels of the ahkam

1. Sunnah which is intended to be a binding law: This kind includes the sayings, acts and approval of the Prophet (saw) through which he intended the laying down of the law or the explanation of the ahkam (law) laid down by the Quran . This comprises the largest part of the sunnah.

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2- Sunnah which is specific to the Prophet( )

This kind includes those acts which are specific to the Prophet (.) The number of these acts is very limited. One example is the number of his marriages, marriage without dowry, not eating out of charity (.)

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3. Ordinary physical acts performed by every human being Like eating, drinking, walking. Such acts are not meant to lay down laws. If one imitates the Prophet (saw) in these acts out of love for him and with the intention to get reward, he will be rewarded for this. But the etiquettes and manners prescribed by the Messenger of Allah for the performance of such acts are part of that which is meant to be a binding law.
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4. Acts based on human experience This may include acts that pertain to his experience as a human being, like the organizing of the army, tactics of war, trading skills. These acts dont become precedents of law, because their basis is skill and experience rather than revelation. However, if they are still relevant to ones situation they might be followed.
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Status of the Sunnah with respect to the Quran The Sunnah is the second source just next to the Quran which is the first source. There will be no Islam without the adoption of the sunnah.

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 The Sunnah is basically an

elaboration and commentary on the Quran . Some ahkam are found in the Quran in general, in an undetermined or unelaborated form. The Sunnah restricts, qualifies, or elaborates these ahkam.
137

 The Sunnah is a concrete implementation, a

tangible form and the actual embodiment of the Quran The Sunnah may lay down some rules that are not mentioned in the Quran Quran says: And whatsoever the messenger brought to you, follow it. And whatsoever he forbids, abstain from it (al-Hashr:7)

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The knowledge we get from The Sunnah

Worship ()

The rulings and teachings related to Halal and haram: In food, drinks, clothes, and transactions: - the Sunnah interprets what needs to be interpreted in the Quran . - The Sunnah may add some prohibitions which are not included in the Quran .
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 Law

(family, criminal, commercial, procedural, international ) Manner of conduct: The biography of the Prophet (saw) is the model of individual moral conduct. A noble model you have in Allahs Apostle, for all whose hope is in Allah, and in the final Day, and who often remember Allah (al-Ahzab:21)

140

 The model in implementing and

embodying the teachings and principles of the Quran The model in the relationship between humans and Allah )ibadah( The model in establishing a family and treating well the wives as well as the children.
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 A model in dealing with people.

A model in hard-working,

patience, and perseverance etc. Leadership: He was a model leader from whom we learn the requirements of a successful leader.
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Dawah:

How he started from nothing

and ended with hundreds of thousands of followers after two decades only.

143

Nation building and social reformation:

How he established a nation and

changed an almost primitive society dominated by tribalism and rivalries among different tribes and social classes to a civilized and strong state characterized by unity, cooperation, and brotherhood.
144

 Eliminating idolatry and establishing Tawhid

Eliminating bad social values in dealing with the

weak social classes: women, slaves, poor people, black people, etc.

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Reason () as a Sources of Knowledge

146

Reason as a Source of Knowledge

The term reason is used in different senses and meanings: 1. The power of being able to think in a logical and rational manner, as distinct from experience or emotions. 2. Ability to think clearly and coherently 3. The ability or process of drawing logical inferences.

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Meanings/ Functions of Reason:

1.

Reason is sometimes used to denote a number of self-evident principles (such as the principle of non-contradiction) which govern the process of thinking of mentally competent people, regardless of their cultural background. - These fundamental truths are intuitively apprehended - as opposed to sensation, perception, feeling, desire (the existence of which is denied by empiricists)

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 In this sense, reason is an instrument used for

examining the coherence and rationality of a body of statements. The examination allows us to conclude that the examined statements are: - Either coherent, and hence in conformity with the principles of reason; - Or contradictory, and thus in violation of reason Reason which gives a priori knowledge (pure reason)

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2. The capacity of rational beings to acknowledge

the truth of certain assertions and deny the truth of others with the power to abstract, analyze, synthesize A body of knowledge which has been examined and systemized by the principle of logic and considered by certain people as reasonable. = Reason as a mental faculty. Reason is to be associated with methods and mechanisms used in science and knowledge, generally, rather than a source of knowledge.
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Reason vs. Revelation The faculty of reasoning is one of the most precious gifts of Allah to mankind. Reason is the basis of taklif (legal capacity) because it is the power of discernment by which humans can distinguish between good and bad, right and wrong Reason is the basis of Iman/ faith, thus, it is given the authority to examine the authenticity of prophets and the revelation they claim to bring from God.

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 The Quran is full of references which command

and exhort people to think, contemplate, and to examine the claimed revelation This shows that: - Islam values reason; and - Islam is confident that there will be no contradiction between what is contained in the revelation and what can be reasoned by human reason

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 What is claimed by unbelievers to be irrational

or unreasonable is either: = Mere speculation and ignorance, such as when they deny some beliefs or they misunderstand them.

But most of them follow nothing but conjecture and speculation: truly conjecture and speculation can never challenge or replace truth. Verily Allah is well aware of all that they do. (10:36)
153

)36 : (

= Or mere wishes and deluded hopes (hawa)

And they say: "None shall enter Paradise unless he be a Jew or a Christian." Those are their vain desires. Say: "Produce your proof if you are truthful." (2: 111)

)111 : (

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 Interestingly, those who claim to reject

religion/ revelation based on logic and rationality are characterized by the Quran as those who fail to use their mental faculties/ reason properly. )18 : ( Then We put you on the right way of religion; so follow that way, and do not follow the desires of those who do not know. )45: 18)
155

 )171 : (

The parable of those who reject Faith is as if one were to shout like a goat-herd, to things that listen to nothing but calls and cries: deaf, dumb, and blind, they are void of wisdom. (2: 171)

156

Hawwas (senses) as Means to Knowledge

157

 Senses as sources of Knowledge: The Quran

urges us to use the faculties of senses. It blames the Kuffar for not using their senses properly. The faculties of senses will bear witness for or against one on the Day of Judgment.

158

Sound Senses (Hawwas al-Salimah)

1. Hearing
2. Sight, 3. Smell, 4. taste, 5. touch
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Hearing (al-sam) It is a faculty (quwa) placed in the nerves spread out in the cavity of the ear hole, by which sounds are perceived. It is by way of connecting with the ear hole the air, which has assumed the quality of the sounds, meaning that Allah then creates perception in the soul (al-nafs) [E.Elder, 18]

160

Seeing (al-basar) It is a faculty placed in the two hollow nerves which meet each other in the brain, thence they separate and go to the two eyes; by this faculty are perceived rays of light, colours, shapes, measures, motions, the beautiful and the ugly, and other things, the perception of which Allah creates in the soul whenever the creature uses this faculty.

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Smelling (al-shamm) It is a faculty placed in the two protruding lumps on the front of the brain, which are like the two nipples of the breast; by this faculty odors are perceived by way of connecting with the cartilage of the nose the air which has assumed the quality of the odors.
162

Taste (al-zawq) It is a faculty spread out in the nerves situated on the organ of the tongue; by this faculty flavors are perceived through the mixing of the saliva which is in the mouth with the thing tasted, and through its reaching to the nerves.
163

Touch (al-lams) It is a faculty spread out into all the body by which heat and cold, moisture and dryness, and the like are perceived at the time of touching and contact.
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Methodology
Definition: Method: A particular way of doing something, esp. a systematic one; implies an orderly logical arrangement. Methodology: 1.The theoretical analysis of the methods appropriate to a field of study or to the body of methods and principles particular to a branch of knowledge.

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Kinds of Methodologies

i. Methodology in revealed knowledge ii. Methodology in human knowledge (pure and social sciences) iii. Integrative methodology of revealed knowledge and human knowledge.

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What is Islamic Methodology?

Methodology means a technique or method. It is the field of inquiry concerned with the

examination of methods used in the study of natural sciences, human and social sciences and religious sciences in order to understand the subjects. A comprehensive Islamic methodology means to Islamize and integrate knowledge on the basis of the combination between the revelation and reason in order to overhaul the obstacles and challenges facing a modern man and the society.
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Methodologies used by the early Muslim scholars Slide Number?

Collection of Data
Verifications

Ijtihad (wahy, `aql and Hawas)

Istihsan (Juristic Preference)

Islamic Methodologies

Reliable Narrators

Masalih Mursalah (public interest) `Urf (a particular Custom)

Chain of Transformation

Consultation & Consensus

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Islamic Methodology
1.

2.
3.

4.
5.

6.

Collection of data of the Quran and Sunnah Verified techniques used by the narrators in order to ensure the authenticity of narrations. Compilation of the Quran and Sunnah. Considering the reliable narrators with specific criteria. Chain of transformation, no gap between two generations and not less than 40 forty narrators. Memorizations of the Quran and Sunnah.
169

Islamic Methodology
7. Consultation among the scholars and consensus based on majority opinions. 8. Ijtihad (rational arguments, explanation, interpretation and adjustment with the local culture and custom) 9. Istihsan (juristic preference), supplementary methods in order to make up for the growing number of new situations that were difficult with the textual and the analogical arguments.

170

Islamic Methodology
10. Maslahah or Masalih Mursalah (public interest), supplementary methods, if the texts of the Quran and Hadith or consensus or analogy were not available. 11. `Urf (custom of a particular society or a nation), supporting for adjustment from avoiding the contradictions and social division and disunity for the public interest.

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 Merits of the Traditional Approach

Merits of the traditional approach were

the sincerity, piety, enthusiasm, commitment, and dedication of the early Muslim researchers, many of whom looked for their rewards in the Hereafter.

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 Islamic research, experimentation and

empirical investigation were considered acts of ibadah. The God-consciousness of the traditional scholars was reflected in their writings and research, which they would commence with bismillah (in the name of Allah), seek His blessings and conclude by dedicating their results to Him.
173

 The holistic nature of the traditional

Islamic educational system made no distinction between revealed knowledge and empirically derived knowledge.

174

 Knowledge was perceived as a

comprehensive whole, with empirically derived knowledge subject to the verification of revealed knowledge.

175

Tawhidic Criteria for Islamic Methodology

Three main tawhidic criteria for Islamic

methodology are as follows: 1. Anything which does not correspond with the reality must be rejected. 2. Ultimate contradictions must be denied and rejected. 3. Approaches must be open in order to adjust and accommodate new situations facing the society and man.
176

Merits of Islamic

Methodology Summarized

177

Allahs pleasure Knowing context, Purpose and Application of the Texts Pure Intention For humanity

As Ibadah

Commitment to People and society

Merit of Islamic Methodologies

Mastery of Arabic Language

Reflection Of Allah Awareness

Combination of Wahy & Aql Identifying the Short-comings Of Empirical Knowledge.

Self-Initiative (Establishing Institutions)

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Depended on Traditional method Verification of Validities, shortcoming Depended on Western Method

Integrating Between Wahy and Aql

Creativity and Initiative ness

Traditional Methods as Inspiration

Obstacles And Recommendations for Muslim Scholars

Absence of Islamic Curriculum

Bilingual Competency

MisPropagation And Misconception

Regaining Sincerity and Pure intention For humanity

Unavailability Financial and Technical support

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 Methodology in Human

Knowledge (pure and social sciences)

180

Science From Latin word scientia means systematic knowledge of the physical or material world

181

Knowledge of Science Is acquired through experience, observation and research Discursive: preceded by arguments Inductive and deductive

182

Two scientific methods/ logical systems : induction & deduction 1. Deductive method (istinbat)() The researcher begins with a theory and then derives one or more hypotheses from it for testing.
183

 The researcher implements those

observations to see whether they confirm or fail to confirms the hypotheses. Next, the researcher defines the variables in each hypothesis and the operations to be used to measure them in specific observable terms.
184

2. Inductive method (istiqra)()

A method of discovering general

rules and principles from particular facts and examples. In induction one starts from observed data and develops a generalization which explains the relationships between the objects observed.
185

Characteristics of Scientific Method 1. Everything is open to question In our quest to understand things, we should strive to keep an open mind about everything we thing we know or we want to understand. What we call knowledge is transitional and subject to refutation!! Is this possible? Can this characteristic be open? To which extent can we hold this perception?
186

2. Evidence based on observation Scientific method seeks knowledge through observed evidence and not authority, tradition or ideology. The evidence should be systematic, comprehensive, and as objective as possible.

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Basic Steps in Scientific Research: 1. Collection of data This is a common basis of all sciences; pure, human, and social.
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 This is a function of perception and

cognition. - The mind goes on collecting data from all kinds of observations and experiences. Simultaneously, the mind, by using its power of identification and retention (the ability to remember things), goes on establishing relationships
189

 The

observation will be on some assumed correlation between some aspects according to some tentative hypothesis to prove if there is any interrelationships between them. This observation can be done in a laboratory (physics, chemistry, biology, etc.) or in a field when the parts under study spread over vast areas in time and space (astronomy, geology).
190

 Observation can be done through senses and

perceptive power or by help of scientific equipment (devices for measurement) and technological equipment (devices to facilitate work and utilizing the resource of environment). The advance of scientific and technological equipment have contributed to the expansion of methods and meanings of collection of scientific data and the horizon of observation.

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 In Muslim history of science it is a fact

that Muslim scientists realized at an early stage the importance of scientific equipment for collection of data, therefore they introduced big astrolabes (scientific instrument used for reckoning time and for observational purposes to enable astronomers to calculate the position of the Sun and prominent stars with respect to both the horizon and the meridian)
192

and quadrants (an instrument for measuring angles, especially to check your position at sea or to look at stars) for exact observations of stars and planets, and even had invented a spherical astrolabe.
193

Measures to guard against distortion: The person taking observations should be clear in his mind; he should not be obsessed by any preconceived ideas. He should record only what is really happening (objective). He needs patience and perseverance to ensure the reliability of his observations.
194

 Even the observations taken with all this care

cannot be taken at their face value, until preliminary statistical tests confirm its reliability, or a number of other scientists confirm it independently. The rules of observation laid down by Jabir ibn Hayyan (chemistry): 1. The time and season must be carefully chosen; 2. It is best for the laboratory to be in a secluded (quiet and private) place ;
195

3. The

chemist must have trusted friends; 4. He must have sufficient time to conduct experiments; 5. Patience and reticence (not disclosing results hastily before testing them); 6. Perseverance; 7. He must not be deceived by appearances into bringing his operations to too hasty a conclusion.
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2.

Classification and analysis of data: To arrange the data in some regular order; To find out the characteristics of the population from where the random sample of data was taken; To establish the relations and correlations between different members of the population under study or with members of other series.
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3. Hypothesis:
After studying the characteristics of the

members of the population under study, there comes the stage when the researcher begins to ask the question How about the working of those members and their correlations. The answer to this question is the hypothesis which describes in words or in symbols the relationship that appear to exist between them.
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 This hypothesis will be depending, to

some extent, on guessing. This guess is based on the past observation, experience and knowledge. There may be many hypotheses depending on the number of variable parameters involved.

199

4- Hypotheses testing: The hypotheses will be put into testing through experiments in different produced conditions to show their validity and applicability.

200

 If the predictions in the hypothesis

come out correct, then the status of the hypothesis is raised to that of a theory. If this theory is found to be universally applicable, it is called a law of nature.

201

Observation

Logical deduction
Experimentation and empirical observations (under controlled conditions)

The hypothesis is validated = Theory

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Origination of Scientific methodology Muslim scientists were the first ones to introduce this method and to emphasize the role of experimentation. Jabir ibn Hayyan, for example, stated clearly in his book on chemistry: the first essential is to perform practical work and experiments. One who does not do so will never attain mastery.

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Among the rules of experiments laid down by him: 1. The operator should know the reason for performing the experiment (hypotheses and predictions should be set clearly); 2. The instructions must be properly understood;
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 Impossible and profitless

processes should be avoided )vague hypotheses which dont lead to definite predictions, or hasty experiments which lead to vague results, are of no value).
205

Example:

Until the 10th century the Greek and

Egyptian theory of geocentric cosmology was assumed to be true, and It was held by early Muslim scientists.

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 According to this theory the fixed

stars are farther than the stars of the Milky Way/ the Galaxy (the system of stars that contains our sun and its planets) which is supposed to be close to the earth and to be situated in the atmosphere of the earth.
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 In Greek astronomy, this was an axiom and all

other problems of astronomy had to satisfy this truth. The Muslim astronomer Ibn al-Haytham, based on his inductive method and with help of the equipment developed by Muslim scientists, came to a conclusion that the stars of the Milky Way were as far off as the other fixed stars, and that they were not situated in the atmosphere of the earth.

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 Ibn al-Haytham was facing two

contradicting hypotheses: the Greek axiom and his hypothesis. And the question was: how to decide about the validity of these two opposing hypotheses?
209

Ibn al-Haytham suggested an experiment to decide about these hypotheses:

1. to measure the distance from the

same place in different seasons. 2. to measure the distance at the same time from two places far apart on the earth.

210

3. The result was that if the stars of the Milky Way are in the atmosphere of the earth, then, in both the sets of observations suggested, their relative positions will be different.

211

 If the stars of the Milky Way are as

far as the other fixed stars, there will be no change in the relative positions of the two sets of stars in either cases. Observations were taken and it was found that the stars of the Milky Way did not change their relative positions among the fixed stars.
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 Here the validity of the hypothesis was

not tested by the help of deductive logic alone. Only the predictions were deduced by logic and geometry. But the validity of the hypothesis was proved by experiment and observation. And this is what is called the inductive method of modern science.

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Draper, Conflict between Science and Religion

The characteristics of their )Muslims( method

are experiment and observation, geometrical and mathematical sciences that worked as instruments of reasoning. In their numerous writings on mechanics, hydrostatics, optics, etc. it is interesting to remark that the solution to a problem is always by performing an experimental observation. It was this that made them the originators of chemistry;

214

that led them to the invention of all kinds of apparatus for distillation (to make a liquid pure by heating it until it becomes a gas, then cooling it and collecting the drops of liquid that form), sublimation (conversion of a substance from the solid to the vapour state without its becoming liquid), fusion (the process or result of joining two or more things together to form one, like the fusion of copper and zinc to produce brass), filtration (the process of filtering a liquid or gas), etc.;
215

that caused them in Astronomy to appeal to divided instruments such as quadrants and astrolabes, in Chemistry to employ the balance, the theory of which they were perfectly familiar with, to construct tables of specific gravity and astronomical tables like those of Baghdad and Spain, great improvements in Geometry, the invention of Algebra and the adoption of Indian numeration in Arithmetic. Such were the results of the performance of the inductive method their declining the reveries (imaginations/ dreams) of Plato.

216

 Francis Bacon, who is considered by

the West as one of the founders of inductive/ scientific method, in his book Novum Organum (1st quarter of the 17th century) while pleading for the introduction of empiricism in Europe says again and again that: great authorities follow this and consider this method better than the old deductive method of the Greeks.
217

 But he never once mentions the

name of the great authorities and the wise people No one applied this method before except Muslim scientists. It is suggested that he did not mention them by name for fear of inquisition.
218

Achievements of scientific method: Freed sciences from the domination of rigid deductive method that is more suitable to theoretical and philosophical studies. Limited the sphere of intellectual speculations and made a big room for empirical knowledge.

219

 Freed scientific research from the grip

of Greek axioms. Limited the sphere of metaphysical studies and made shift to natural and physical studies.

220

 Successful results achieved by scientists

gave them confidence in this scientific method and encouraged them to further their research. This, in turn, led to expansion of the horizon of scientific research; discovering new laws and opening new areas.

221

 Experimental endeavour led to the

transformation of science to technology, and the invention of sophisticated machines and equipment.

222

Side effects of the scientific method The overconfidence in and adoration of the scientific method led to extreme rationality. Extreme rationality led to the adoption of scientific method in the field of human and social sciences.
223

Empiricism/ logical-positivism (from the Greek word empeiria = experience.) Inaugurated by Francis Bacon and developed by John Locke (1632-1704) In philosophy, the attitude that beliefs are to be accepted and acted upon only if they first have been confirmed by actual experience.
224

 Stressing

experience, Empiricism is opposed to the claims of authority, intuition, imaginative conjecture, and abstract, theoretical, or systematic reasoning (Rationalism) as sources of reliable belief. The essence of empiricism is observation, measurement, and quantification of sense data available to the observer.
225

Early empiricism vs. Revelation

Although Bacon proclaims the

universal applicability of induction, he himself treats it almost exclusively as a means to natural knowledge and ignores its social application.

226

 Most divine knowledge must come

from revelation, and reason has nothing to do with it. There is such a thing as divine philosophy (what was later called rational, or natural, theology), but its sole task and competence is to prove that there is a God.

227

 John Locke one of the fathers of

empiricism did consider revelation, in principle, as a source of certain type of knowledge. But he assigned to it a very marginal and subordinate role. He argues that knowledge acquired by human reasoning is more reliable and certain than knowledge received through revelation.
228

 Because

one may doubt the preservation of the original revelation through the act of narration, or question the lack of means for validating or substantiating its content. But one can always be certain about what his faculty of understanding considers true.
229

 He gives revelation the upper hand over reason

in two instances: 1. In questions belonging to the realm of faith, because its inaccessible to human reasoning. 2. Revelation should supersede reason in the realm of probable knowledge which does not rise to certainty. (But one can always be certain about what his faculty of understanding considers true.)

230

Positivism In philosophy, generally, any system that confines itself to the data of experience and excludes a priori (knowledge that is independent of all particular experiences, as opposed to a posteriori knowledge, which derives from experience alone) or metaphysical speculations.
231

 As a philosophical ideology and

movement, Positivism first assumed its distinctive features in the work of Auguste Comte (17981857). It then developed through several stages known by various names, such as Empirio criticism, Logical Positivism, and Logical Empiricism, etc.
232

The basic affirmations of Positivism are:

1.That all knowledge regarding matters of fact is based on the positive data of experience; 2.That beyond the realm of fact is that of pure logic and pure mathematics, which were, in a later phase of Positivism, classified as purely formal sciences.
233

3. Strict adherence to the testimony of observation and experience is the all-important imperative of the Positivists. 4. In its basic ideological posture, Positivism is worldly, secular, antitheological, and anti-metaphysical.

234

Naturalism/ natural method A theory that relates scientific method to philosophy by affirming that all beings and events in the universe are natural. Consequently, all knowledge of the universe falls within the pale of scientific investigation.
235

 Usually naturalism denies the

existence of truly supernatural realities. Naturalists assert that nature is reality. There is nothing beyond, nothing other than, no other world of being.

236

 Naturalism presumes that nature is

in principle completely knowable. There is in nature a regularity, unity, and wholeness that implies objective laws, without which the pursuit of scientific knowledge would be absurd.

237

 Naturalism

has no ontological preference: dualism and monism, atheism and theism, idealism and materialism are all per se compatible with it.

238

Two positive results of bahaviourism 1. Development of neurosciences. 2. Development of behaviour therapy (behaviour modification), which focused on modifying observable behaviour, rather than on the thoughts and feelings of the patient (as in psychoanalysis).

239

Conclusion W. M. Smart, The origin of the earth. Let us not then exalt the scientific method unduly as the close preserve of the scientist nor, which is much more important, as the only means by which we attempt to discover the secrets of nature.
240

 It is easy for a scientist to be a

materialist if he sees only in the universe the apparently relentless (continuous) unfolding of natural law, and forgets that there are domains where the laws of physics are irrelevant

241

 But

more and more scientists are realizing that they are exploring only one section of the great world of nature in all its manifold complexity; beauty, moral, conduct, spiritual values, religious experience, are all outside their domain, yet all come within mans scrutiny when he attempts to interpret the universe as a whole and strives to discern purpose therein

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Harris, Kelvin (1979), Education and Knowledge The limitations of empiricism in human and social sciences can be manifested in different areas among them:
Derived conclusions could not be

logically valid for generalization because there could be exceptions.

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 Methodology of data collection is

theory laden, that is, the investigator has preconceptions and motives, which influence his choice of methodology of investigation and this subsequently affects the outcome

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 The humanistic studies of Western

man and the social analysis of Western society by a Western scientist are necessarily "Western" and cannot serve as models for the study of Muslims or of their society. Ismail Raji al-Faruqi (1977), "Islamizing the Social Sciences"

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The Search for an Islamic Methodology

Methodology comprises: 1. Technical procedures 2. Conditions for using methods/ conceptual aspects of methodology

246

1. Natural and physical sciences The scientific method in its technical procedures has a universal application. It was initially started by Muslim scientists and, later developed by Western scientists, and became as a heritage of humanity.
247

 There is no objection to adopting

the technical procedures developed by non-Muslims. It needs to be applied within the Islamic ethical and ideological frame. Production of Muslim scientists

248

2. Social

& human sciences The main objects to the Western methods used in the domain of human & social sciences are: 1. They are heavily inclined towards materialism and application of procedures of the natural sciences. Exclusion of spiritual aspect.

249

1. They

embody the Western concepts & values (exclusion of revelation). 2. They set the Western values & concepts as universal norms and models by which other societies should by judged.

250

 The

employment of this Western methodology in the Muslim world is leading toward Westernization of Muslim societies.

251

The issues of: Rejecting revelation and contrasting scientific with revealed knowledge and; Confining reality to the empirical one under the justification that reason cannot ascertain transcendental reality; Are not real problems in Islam.

252

- These structures are not immediately

encountered by the senses. Instead, the structures of empirical existence are inferred through the use of categories abstracted from the sensible, and mediated by purely rational categories and statements.

253

e.g. Our understanding of the relationship between the earth and the sun is mediated by mental constructs, and hence is completely at variance with the immediate impression received from the senses.

254

2. Revelation,

at least in its Islamic form, seeks its justification in empirical reality. Divine revelation sees empirical reality as the manifestation of a transcendental reality. The interconnectedness of the empirical and transcendental is always stressed by the Quran
255

 Both

revelation and empirical knowledge are needed for a comprehensive understanding of nature. The science-revelation conflict is neither imperative nor universal, but specific to Western religion and experience. There is no need at all to reproduce it in Muslim culture.

256

Setting the norm/ standard/ model In social and human science norms, models, standards are crucial for understanding, judging, and changing human behaviour as well as social phenomena. The norms/ standards/ models are used to deduce conclusions.

257

 Western scholarship assumes that

the practices of the Western society (which is assumed to stand at the peak of human evolution) become the standard of normality.

258

Integrative Methodology of Revealed Knowledge and Human Knowledge

The common point among Muslim

scholars who are concerned with Islamization of knowledge/ Islamic methodology is the incorporation of Revelation into different fields of research.
259

 But when it comes to How the

answers may be different. Until now, only little has been done, and more efforts are required to establish a viable Islamic methodology for different social and human sciences

260

Islamic Methodology should: Incorporate revelation as a source of knowledge and give it its due role in guiding human inquiry of knowledge. Work under the directions of our worldview (the origin & nature of man and universe, the purpose of their creation, and their destiny).

261

 Reflect the Islamic objectives and

values Set our norms/ standards/ models which are derived from the Quran, the Sunnah, and the practice of the early Muslim society

262

A framework for islamization of knowledge

Islamic legacy Western knowledge

Mastery of disciplinary substantive knowledge Mastery of analytical and synthetic techniques University textbooks

Islamic University
Perfect/universal man
263

Conclusion
Muslims of the past always followed the

Islamic methodology in their research: They based their work on the principle of tawhid; They verified the information to ensure its authenticity; They were sincere, pious, enthusiastic, committed and dedicated researchers; They perceived knowledge as a comprehensive whole; They avoided any innovation in the religion for fear of Allahs punishment;
264

 They had greater familiarity with classical

Arabic than contemporary Muslim scholars, which facilitated their understanding and analysis of the original texts; They used to commence their work with bismillahi al-Rahman al-Rahim (in the Name of Allah, the Gracious, the Merciful), seeking Allahs blessings and conclude by dedicating their results to Him; in this way they treated their research as an act of ibadah.

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Islam and Civilization

1. 2. 3. 4.

Meaning of civilization Civilization and Culture Arabic terms for civilization Characteristics of Civilization

266

Arabic terms:
al- Hadarah/ Al-Tamaddun/ al-

Madaniyyah Al-Tamaddun/ al-Madaniyyah: derived from the word madinah)city or town(, and din)religion(. Al-Umran
267

Meaning of Civilization
An advanced level of development in society that is marked by complex social and political organization, and material, scientific, and artistic progress

A society, its culture and its way of life during a particular period of time or in a particular part of the world.

268

 The way and level of life of people

in the cities as contrasted with the way and level of life in rural areas. The relation between madinah and din indicates the role of religion in the establishment of civilization and refinement of social culture
269

Civilization designates a condition of human society characterized by a high level of cultural and technological achievements; and correspondingly complex social and political development It is an advanced state of intellectual, cultural and material development in human society
270

 Each civilization has a body or matter

and a soul. The body of the civilization is its material achievements such as buildings, infrastructure, agriculture, industry, educational institutions, technological equipment, and all that is related to various pleasures of worldly life.

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The soul of civilization is the set of; ideologies, concepts, moral values, manners and traditions that are embodied in the behavior of individuals, groups, and their interrelations.
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Characteristics of Islamic civilization 1- Based on the Muslim civilization was the first universal civilization that was based on a pure and strict unitarianism (unity of God) The only one who deserves submission The only one who deserves worship The only one who deserves absolute obedience.

273

 Eliminates idolatry (idols, and

statues) Frees common people from the oppression of the kings, Papacy, and Brahmanism Sets right the relationship between the ruler and the ruled (all people are equal)
274

2. Universality

Islamic civilization was the first

civilization which embraced the entire humanity It declared equality of all human beings of all descents, races, and colours Verily the most honoured of you in the sight of Allah is he who is the most righteous of you )49: 13).
275

 This civilization is attributed to all

Muslims on an equal basis. (Arab nationalism / Western civilization /supremacy of white man) [Universality vs. Globalization] Open to the contribution of all members of the Muslim ummah regardless of their race, ethnicity, or colour, and even non-Muslim citizens.
276

3- Moderate Rationalism It gives human reason a high position Its faith is based on reasoning and conviction It rejects superstitious and unfounded beliefs. It does not go to the extreme of denying the truths which are not directly related to empirical knowledge but are based on revealed knowledge

277

4. Tolerance

Tolerance towards people of different

religions (especially Christians and Jews) Minorities enjoyed a high level of tolerance and freedom of religion and economic pursuit. This characteristic is peculiar for a civilization based on religious foundations.
278

 It would be reasonable for a

secularist who does not believe in any religion to treat religions equally and give people freedom of belief, but it may be difficult for a religious person to do so.
279

5. Integrated and balanced civilization Integrates the faith with the state/ rejection of secularism Integrates the body with the spirit (material vs. spiritual) Integrates the worldly life with the life in the hereafter
280

 Integrates empirical sciences with

revelation Assigns priority to moral principles = morality vs. pragmatism Integration in a balanced manner Balance means following a middle course between two extremes of thought and action.
281

Western Culture and Civilization Western Civilization is The civilization that has evolved out of the historical fusion of cultures, philosophies, values and aspirations of ancient Greece and Rome; their amalgamation with Judaism and Christianity, and their further development and formation by the Latin, Germanic, Celtic and Nordic Peoples.

282

Western Civilization Characteristics of Western civilization In terms of material progress and scientific exploration, the modern Western civilization has surpassed all civilizations across history. Pushing forward mans incentives and capabilities to exploit nature and benefit from it.
283

 Technological achievements =

eased human life, luxury Effective management and organization Respect of human rights within its homelands
284

The ideologies of the Western civilization are: 1. Utilitarian materialism This civilization may not deny the existence of God strongly and openly, or deny the existence of the spirit. But it does not recognize the value of God in its ideological system.

285

 It accepts only things which

are considered by it as of practical value The practical value is in luxury and worldly pleasure = this is the real God

286

2. Secularism

Inspired by secular philosophy, devoid of certainty, subject to constant review and change Its worldview formulation is not upon revealed knowledge and religious belief but rather upon cultural tradition, speculations to secular life centered upon man as physical entity
287

 religion as a personal matter limited

to individual practice without any interference in social, economic or political activities religious practice limited to dead rituals

288

Destruction of moral values = utilitarianism/ pragmatism Destruction of family (abortion, neglect of the elderly( Creates an atmosphere of fear, anxiety and distraction 3. Atheism: The doctrine or belief that there is no God
289

4. Humanism Reliance upon the powers of human reason alone to guide man through life

290

5. Dualism
Adherence to the validity of dualistic

vision of reality and truth Affirmation of the reality of the temporary/impermanent aspect of existence projecting a secular worldview

291

The Rise and Decline of Islamic civilization

292

A brief chronology of Muslim Civilization

Preparatory phase

571: Birth of the Prophet. This year was marked with an invasion of Makkah and an attempt to destroy Kabah (the year of the Elephant). 610: The first revelation in the cave at Mount Hira. The beginning of Mohammads prophethood.
293

621: First pledge at Aqaba. The search for a place to establish Muslim state. 622: Second pledge at Aqaba. The acceptance of the people of Yathrib to receive the Prophet (saw) and his followers
294

The Emergence of the State 622: The Hijrah (migration to Yathrib/ Madina), marks the establishment of the Muslim state. 624: Battle of Badr. The new power in the Arab peninsula. 628: Truce of Hudaibiya. Peace to give people a chance to know about the new religion, and to focus on strengthening the newly emerged state.
295

628: The Prophet addresses letters to various heads of states. Going international (beyond Arabian territories) 630: Muslims return back to their homeland Makkah after being expelled from it.

296

631: Expedition to Tabuk Sending a message to the Persian authorities who had been occupying the Arab territories and were hostile to the new religion. 632: Farewell pilgrimage at Makkah. The Prophet addresses his followers with his last speech. 632: Death of the Prophet (saw). Election of Abu Bakr as the Caliph.

297

Transitory instability Attempts to destroy the new religion and state Pseudo-prophets, Rejection of paying Zakat (disloyalty to the central authority)

298

Wars of liberation:
633 - 641: Liberation of Arab territories (Bahrain, Oman, Iraq, Syria, al-Quds/ Jerusalem, and the remaining parts of Jazirah. (occupied by Persians and Roman Byzantines) 636: Defeating the occupying forces of the Romans (Battle of Yermuk) followed by the liberation of Syria and al-Quds.
299

636:

The last major battle against Persian Empire (the battle of Qadsiyyah) the fall of their capital Madain.

300

641:

- Liberation

of oppressed people in

Egypt. - The Catholic Archbishop of Egypt invites the Muslims to help free Egypt from Roman oppressors. - This exemplifies the alliances formed between Muslims, Christians and Jews due to the Muslims' establishment of religious freedom for Christians and Jews.
301

644: Umar dies and is succeeded by Caliph Uthman 654: Islam spreads into all of North Africa which was partly occupied by Romans. 656: Ali becomes the Caliph. Battle of the Camel. Another period of turmoil and political instability (fighting between different political groups) 660: Mu'awiyah declares himself as the Caliph at Damascus.
302

661: Ali assassinated. Accession of Hasan. An attempt to transform the Islamic political system to a monarchy system. Al-Hasan bin Ali abdicates (gives up/ renounces) in favour of Muawiyah. Mu'awiyah becomes the sole Caliph.

303

 680:

Death of Muawiyah. Accession of His son Yazid. The monarchy system successfully established

304

710: Tariq ibn Malik crosses the strait separating Africa and Europe with a group of Muslims and enters Spain. A year later, 7000 Muslim men invade Gibraltar. 718: By this year almost the entire Iberian peninsula is under Muslim control. 750: Fall of Damascus. End of the Umayyad rule. 750: The establishment of the Abbasid rule
305

The first breakaway Abdul Rahman founds the Umayyad state in Spain. 763: Foundation of Baghdad. 767: The second breakaway Khawarij set up their own state by Ibn Madrar at Sijilmasa. Third breakaway: Rustamid state set up in Morocco
756:
306

Those breakaways were followed by hundreds of other breakaways and civil wars across the Muslim world 792: Invasion of South France. 814: Civil war between Amin and Mamun. Amin killed and Mamun becomes the Caliph. 827: Mamun declares the Mutazila creed as the state religion.
307

870:

968: 1091:

1095: 1099: 1144:

Turks revolt against Muhtadi, his death and accession of Mutamid. Roman Byzantines occupy Aleppo. The Normans conquer the island of Sicily; end of the Muslim rule. The first crusade. The crusaders capture al-Quds. Second crusade.
308

1187:

1212:

1248:

Salah al-Din wrests Jerusalem from the Christians. Third crusade. Battle of AI Uqab in Spain. Muslims defeated by the Christians in Spain By this year Muslim control of Spain was reduced to the Kingdom of Granada, which survives for more than two centuries.
309

1258:

1260:

Baghdad destroyed by the Mongols. End of the Abbasid rule. Battle of Ayn Jalut in Syria. The Mongols are defeated by the Mamluks of Egypt; and the spell of the invincibility of the Mongols is broken.
310

1266:

The eighth crusade. The crusaders invade Tunisia. Failure of the crusade. 1267: Malik ul Salih establishes the first Muslim state of Samudra Pasai in Indonesia. The Spaniards invade Morocco. The Marinids drive away the Spaniards from Morocco.
311

1274:

1371:

Ninth crusade under Edward I of England. The crusade ends in fiasco and Edward returns to England. In the Ottoman Turks empire, Invasion of Bulgaria, Bulgarian territory up to the Balkans annexed by the Turks.

312

1446:

In the Ottoman Turks empire, Second battle of Kossova resulting in the victory of the Turks. Serbia annexed to Turkey.

313

1453:

1456:

1461:
1462:

Capture of Constantinople (Istanbul) by the Ottoman empire. Annexation of Serbia by Ottoman empire. Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Annexation of Albania.

314

1475:

Annexation of Crimea (peninsula in southeastern Ukraine between the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov). Turkey became the master of the Aegean Sea.

315

1507:

1511:

1517:

1529:

The Portuguese under establish strongholds in the Persian Gulf. The Portuguese conquer Malacca from the Muslims. The Ottomans defeat the Mamluks and conquer Egypt. Unsuccessful Ottoman siege of Vienna.
316

1550:

1550:
1687:

The rise of the Muslim kingdom of Aceh in Sumatra. Islam spreads to Java, the Moluccas, and Borneo. Defeat of the Turks by Austria.

317

1718:

In the war against Austria, Turkey suffers defeat. By the treaty of Passarowich Turkey loses Hungary. 1797: Russia occupied Daghestan. 1811:The British occupied Indonesia.

318

1812: 1813:

1827:

Madina fell to Egyptians. Makkah and Taif captured by Egyptian forces and Saudis expelled from Hijaz. Malaya became a preserve of the British according to Anglo-Netherlands treaty in 1824.

319

1830:

1832:

1857:

French forces occupy Algeria, ending 313 years rule of Turks. Turks defeated in the battle of Konia by Egyptian forces. British captured Delhi and eliminated Mughal rule in India after 332 years. This was also the end of 1000 years of Muslim rule over India.

.
320

1859:

1901: 1916:

Imam Shamil defeated by Russian forces in Daghestan French forces occupy Morocco. Arab revolt against Ottoman rule. Lawrence of Arabia leads attacks on the Hijaz Railway.
321

1918: Syria occupied by France. 1921: Abd Allah bin Husayn was made King of Transjordan by the British. 1924: The Turkish khilafah is abolished. 1948: The official establishment of the Jewish state in Palestine.

322

Stages of the process of rise and fall 1) Gestation (Hijra the end of Abu Bakars khilafah( 2) Expansion/ Universal Empire 3) Decay (the second half of khilafa Abbasiyyah) 4) Invasion/ fall
323

Causes of Rise of Muslim Civilization

1. Spiritual power: a tremendous impulse was given to the Muslim community to explore life and the world around them (life and world created for a purpose). The Muslims spread the word of Allah. Islam way to save people and liberate them

324

2. Ability to transform the ideals of the Quran to daily conduct: Hardwork, perseverance, sincerity, honesty, patience

325

3. Intellectual freedom, freeing human intellect from superstitions, teaching people to think critically and creatively (prohibition of imitation without sound evidence) 4. Political freedom, equality between the ruler and the ruled. Allah has sent us to free humans from worshipping other humans, and to commit them to worshipping Allah
326

5. Openness: To learn from human experience To people of different races and ethnicities. Muslim civilization was a joint endeavour of Muslims from different peoples and races It was not the military power which enabled early Muslims to dominate half of the then known world. It was their righteousness and their humaneness. The Muslims intermarried freely with local people and became part of them.

327

6. The spirit of seeking knowledge Most of the rulers of Banu Ummayah and the first two centuries of al-abbasiyyin dynasties were educated or scholars. They encouraged learning and scientific enquiry and used to spend on it generously (the House of Wisdom).

328

 The establishment of hundreds of

schools and universities such as alNizamiyyah, al-Azhar, alQayrawan etc.

329

 In addition to the generous spending on

education and scholars, waqf (endowment fund) was well developed and played a significant role in developing educational institutions. Although there was a relevant level of dictatorship, rulers did not use to interfere in educational institutions and the affairs of scholars.
330

Causes of decline
Tribalism
Ethnocentrism The Prophet (saw) was able to suppress

these social diseases and reduce them to the minimal level among sahabah and substitute them with a strong brotherhood.

331

 The new comers to Islam, who used to live

under the rule of tribes or monarchs and emperors, brought with them those loyalties. Sectarianism Obsession with power/ prestige/ Striving for power assassinations overthrowing each other civil wars separation seeking help from enemies

332

 Revolutions / insurgencies here and

there Moral decadence: Dishonesty, indifference, cheating, laziness, neglecting obligation, involvement in haram, interest in pleasure and enjoyment rather than more serious thingsetc. Dictatorship/ political injustice/ changing the political system from shura to monarchy
333

Weakness of central authority: For most of the last three centuries of the Abbasid rule, the rulers (Caliphs) became nominal. The real sovereign power had passed already to the Turks. The rulers became under their direct influence and they were frequently changed or murdered one after another.
334

 Deterioration in the educational level of

the rulers: The guardians, soon became the masters. They were men of simple, downright, brutal character, of energy and common sense. The Ottoman Turks/ Mamalik were soldiers first. They were soldierly in all they did.
335

 They did infuse some manhood into the

declining empire, which would have perished but for them. They managed to free some Muslim territories, stop the advancement of Mongols, and expand the Muslim empire. But those rulers were not really qualified to maintain the Muslim civilization.
336

 At the beginning, for centuries the

civilization of Islam was almost unaffected by this transfer of power from a cultured people to a people of comparative illiteracy, rather it continued to progress in spite of it. But the Empire was apparently progressing on the wave of a bygone impulse which was fading away.
337

Academic decline Islamic sciences reached the stage of stagnation; ijtihad was virtually stopped, fanaticism to juridical as well as theological schools of thought became widespread,

338

 The extremism of philosopher and

theologians was met with another extremism of some religious scholars who went to the extent of prohibiting the study of philosophy and the sciences related to it, burning of the books of some philosophers and theologians in some areas such as Ibn Rushd, al-Ghazzali etc.
339

Muslim Sciences: Origin and Development

340

1. Philosophy, natural and physical sciences

The real development of Muslim natural

and physical sciences started after the era of translation. Translation of the intellectual heritage of other nations and civilizations started in the 2nd Islamic century from the four major languages: Greek, Syriac, Persian and Sanskrit.
341

 In the 3rd century, the

establishment of bayt al-Hikmah (The House of Wisdom) founded by Harun al-Rashid and well developed by his son al-Mamun. It was a research and educational institute and the centre for intellectual development.
342

 Many scientific works were

rendered into Arabic in the field of mathematics, physics, astronomy, medicine, pharmacology, history, philosophy and other sciences. The translators were Muslims as well as non-Muslim citizens.

343

Translation: advantages & disadvantages Positive impact Benefiting from human knowledge

and experience Negative impact Translation was not confined to what is useful (pure sciences) Extended to theology and metaphysical issues

344

 Creating confusion among some

Muslims Led to the creation of an elite group of philosophers who were fascinated with Greek philosophy and to some extent deviated from the right principles of Islam Tension between this elite group and religious scholars
345

2. Islamic sciences
Established and developed

solely by Muslims

346

The Contribution of Muslim Scholars

(Natural Sciences)

347

Major Areas of Contribution

1. The adoption and development of the scientific/ inductive method 2. Development of different fields of science + inventions 3. Transfer of the intellectual heritage of the ancient civilizations to the modern civilization
348

1- Al-Khawarizmi
Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Musa Al-

Khawarizmi. (780-850 CE) his birthplace is Khwarizm (modern name: Khiva) south of the Aral Sea. Al-Khawarizmi was a mathematician, astronomer and geographer. He was the founder of several branches and basic concepts of mathematics.

349

 He influenced mathematical

thought to a greater extent than any other mediaeval writer." (Phillip Hitti).

350

 He is the founder of Algebra (al-Jabr) In Arabic, the full expression was Ilm

aljabr wa al-Muqabalah )the science of reunion and equations) and Algorithm (the old name for arithmetic) These terms are derived from the title of his work, HisabAl-Jabr wal alMuqabalah (Book of Calculations, Restoration and Reduction).
351

 His work on algebra was outstanding, as

he not only initiated the subject in a systematic form but he also developed it to the extent of giving analytical solutions of linear and quadratic equations, which established him as the founder of Algebra. He also gives geometrical solutions (with figures) of quadratic equations, for example x2 + 1Ox = 39, an equation often repeated by later writers.
352

 In the twelfth century Gerard of

Cremona and Roberts of Chester translated the Algebra of AlKhawarizmi into Latin. Mathematicians used it all over the world until the sixteenth century.

353

Algorithm = Arithmetic
His arithmetic synthesized

Greek and Hindu knowledge and also contained his own contribution of fundamental importance to mathematics and science.
354

 He explained the use of zero, a

numeral of fundamental importance developed by the Muslims. He developed at length several arithmetical procedures, including the decimal system and operations on fractions.
355

 He introduced the Indian system of

numerals (now generally known as Arabic numerals) which was later passed to Europe. He wrote many books on arithmetic, among them: Kitab al-Jama wa alTafriq bi al-Hisab al-Hind, which was translated to and preserved in Latin language (the Arabic version was lost)

356

 A Latin translation of a Muslim

arithmetic text was discovered in 1857 CE at the University of Cambridge library. Entitled 'Algoritimi de Numero Indorum ,which is believed to be a copy of Al-Khawarizmis arithmetic text, which was translated into Latin in the twelfth century by Adelard of Bath (an English scholar).
357

Geography He revised and corrected Ptolemy's views He produced the first map of the known world in 830 CE. His geography captioned Kitab Surat alArd,(The Face of the Earth) together with its maps, was translated to Latin language.
358

 He worked on measuring the

volume and circumference (the line that goes around the earth) of the earth (this measurement was ordered by Al-Mamun(

359

Geometry

He had many contributions to geometry

including: His astronomical and trigonometric tables, revised by Maslama Al-Majrti (Second half of tenth century), were translated into Latin as early as l126 by Adelard of Bath. They were the first Muslim tables and contained not simply the sine function but also the tangent (Maslama's interpolation).
360

 He also perfected the geometric

representation of conic sections and developed the calculus of two errors, which practically led him to the concept of differentiation. Mechanics He contributed to work related to clocks, sundials (an ancient device for telling the time when the sun is shining) and astrolabes.
361

2. Al-Razi
Abu Bakr Muhammad b. Zakariyya

(Rhazes)(ca.250/854-313/925 or 323/935), in Rayy, Iran. Physician, philosopher and alchemist. He was first placed in-charge of the first Royal Hospital at Rayy, from where he soon moved to a similar position in Baghdad where he remained the head of its famous Muqtadari Hospital for along time.
362

Works: 1- Kitab al-Mansuri, which was translated into Latin in the 15th century A.D., comprised ten volumes and dealt exhaustively with Greco-Muslim medicine. Some of its volumes were published separately in Europe. 2-Kitab al-Judari wa al-Hasabah was the first treatise on smallpox and chicken-pox, and is largely based on Razi's original contribution.
363

3.

He was the first to draw clear comparisons between smallpox and chicken-pox. This book was the first book on smallpox, and was translated over a dozen times into Latin and other European languages. Kitab al-Hasa fi al-kula wa 'l-mathana (Stones in the kidney and bladder) is one of the most famous of his medical writings.
364

4. Al-Hawi was the largest medical encyclopaedia composed by then. It contained on each medical subject all important information that was available from Greek and Muslim sources, and this was concluded by him by giving his own remarks based on his experience and views.

365

Medical system:
A special feature of his medical

system was that he greatly favoured cure through correct and regulated food. This was combined with his emphasis on the influence of psychological factors on health.
366

Medical research: His medical research was highly methodical, as revealed in his notebooks. His medical methods were characterized by lack of dogmatism and total reliance on clinical observation.
367

 He also tried to test medicines first

on animals in order to evaluate their effects and side effects. He was also an expert surgeon and was the first to use opium for anesthesia.

368

 He had an independent mind and that was

strikingly revealed in his book al-Shukuk 'ala Jalinus (Doubts about Galen). Here al-Razi rejects claims of Galen's, from the alleged superiority of the Greek language to many of his cosmological and medical views. In his criticism of Galens medical views, he used to rely on his experimentation and clinical records

369

3. Al-Biruni
Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Abul-Rayhan

Al-Biruni (973-1050AD), from Haran, Syria. His production exceeds 146 titles in more than 20 different disciplines, ranging from astronomy to mathematics, mathematical geography, religion, and philosophy.
370

 But the bulk of his work lies in

mathematics and related disciplines (96 titles). Only 22 works have survived; and only 13 of these have been published. His Al-Qanun al-Masudi is a most extensive astronomical encyclopaedia, slightly short of 1,500 pages.

371

In it: he determines the motion of the solar apogee (the point in the orbit of the sun in space when it is furthest from the earth), he corrects Ptolemy's findings, he was able to state for the first time that the motion is not identical to that of precession, but comes very close to it.
372

he employed mathematical techniques unknown to his predecessors that involve analysis of instantaneous motion and acceleration, described in terminology that can best be understood if we assume that he had "mathematical functions" in mind.
373

 Six hundred years before Galileo, Al-

Biruni discussed the theory of the earth rotating about its own axis. Using the astrolabe and the presence of a mountain near a sea or flat plain, he calculated the earth circumference by solving a highly complex geodesic equation.

374

 His book Tahdid )the demarcation of the

coordinates of cities) was written so as to determine the Qibla. He determined the local meridian (one of the lines that is drawn from the North Pole to the South Pole) and the coordinates of any locality. With the aid of mathematics, he also enabled the direction of the Qibla to be determined from anywhere in the world.

375

4. Al-Kindi (Al-Kindus)
Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Ishaq was born

in 801 in Kufah, Iraq. Al-Kindi was best known as a philosopher, but he was also a physician, pharmacist and he has some contributions to physics, mathematics, geography, astronomy, and chemistry.
376

 He learned Greek and Syriac languages.

He was proficient in the arts of the Greeks, Persians and Hindus. He was employed as a calligrapher as he was well known for his beautiful calligraphy. al-Ma'mun (813-833) appointed him as a researcher and translator in the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikmah), Baghdad.

377

 He was one of the first Muslim

scholars involved in translating and commenting on Greek philosophical manuscripts. He first wrote treatise in epistemology and logic books such as Risalah fi Hudud al-Ashya wa Rusumiha (On the Definitions of Things and their Descriptions).

378

 His other philosophy works include

Rasail al-Kindi al-falsafiyya (Philosophical Treatises of al-Kindi), Fi al-falsafa al-ula (On First Philosophy), Fi wahdaniyat Allah wa tanahiy jism al-alam (On the Oneness of God and the Limitation of the Body of the World),

379

 Fi kammiyat kutub Aristutalis wa

ma yuhtaju ilaihi fi tahsil alfalsafa (The Quantity of Aristotles Books and What is Required for the Acquisition of Philosophy) and Fi al-hila li-daf al-ahzan (On the Art of Averting Sorrows).

380

 Although al-Kindi was

influenced by the work of Aristotle (384-322 BC), he tried to put the Greeks ideas in a new context and to lay down the foundations of a new philosophy.

381

 He first elaborated a system of

thought based on the logic of Greek philosophy, hence developed logic and systematic explanations for some of the debated theological issues of his time, such as creation, immortality, God's knowledge, and prophecy.
382

 He contributed 11 works to arithmetic.

In these works he wrote on Indian numbers, the harmony of numbers, lines and multiplication with numbers, relative quantities, measuring proportion and time, and numerical procedures and cancellation. He made rich contributions to the Arabic system of numerals, which was largely developed by al-Khawarizmi.
383

 He contributed also to medicine. He

produced 22 publications on medical topics. One of his major contributions in medicine and pharmaceutics is to determine and apply a correct dosage, which formed the bases medical formulary. Several of his books were translated into Latin and was known as. His thoughts very much influenced medieval Europe.

384

5. Al-Zahrawi (Albucasis)
Abu-Qasim Khalaf ibn Abbas. He was born in al-Zahra near Cordoba in

936AD, and died in 1013 AD. He was one of the greatest surgeons of his time. His encyclopaedia of surgery was used as standard reference work in the subject in all the universities of Europe for over five hundred years.
385

 His outstanding contribution in

medicine is his encyclopaedic work 'at-Tasrif li-man ajiza an Al-talif' in thirty treatise. His at-Tasrif, completed about 1000 AD, was the result of almost fifty years of medical education and experience.
386

 This encyclopaedia was intended for

medical students and the practising physician, for whom it was a ready and useful companion in a multitude of situations since it answers all kinds of clinical problems. It contained the earliest picture of surgical instruments in history, about 200 instruments are described and illustrated.
387

 In places the use of instrument i.e. the

surgical procedure itself is shown. In discourse l and 2, al-Zahrawi classified 325 diseases and discussed their symptomatology and treatment. In page 145, he described, for the first time, in medical history, a hemorrhagic disease transmitted by unaffected women to their male children; today we call it hemophilia.
388

 These two volumes were translated

into Latin and printed in Augsburg in 1519. Volume 28 is on pharmacy and was translated into Latin as early as 1288 as "Liber Servitoris". Volume 30, on surgery, became the most famous and had by far the widest and the greatest influence.
389

 The 300 pages of this volume

represent the first book of this size devoted solely to surgery, which at that time also included dentistry and what one may term surgical dermatology.

390

 He developed all aspects of

surgery and various branches; ophthalmology diseases of the ear, nose, and throat, and of the head and neck, general surgery, obstetrics, gynecology; military medicine, urology, and orthopedic surgery.
391

 It was translated into Latin by Gerard

Cremona (1114-1187) it went into at least ten Latin editions between 1497 and 1544. The last edition was that of John Channing in Oxford (I778) this contains both the original Arabic text and its Latin translation on alternate pages.
392

 Almost all European authors of

surgical texts from 12th to the 16th centuries referred to alZahrawi's surgery and copied from him

393

Human Sciences & Law and Jurisprudence

394

Abu Ali Al-Hassan ibn Abdullah ibn Sina (981-1037)

Was born in Asfahan near Bukhara (Central

Asia) By the age of ten he had become well versed in the study of the Holy Quran and basic sciences. Known in the West by the name Avicenna. Was the most famous physician, philosopher, encyclopedist, mathematician, and astronomer of his time.

395

 At the age of seventeen he was successful in

curing Nooh ibn Mansor, the king of Bukhara, of an illness in which all the well-known physicians had given up hope. On his recovery the king wished to reward him but the young physician only desired permission to use his uniquely stocked library. He traveled to Jurjan after his fathers death where he met his famous contemporary Abu Raihan al-Biruni

396

 His major contribution to medical

science is his famous book known as alQanun fi al-Tibb; which is known as Canon in the West. In this book he reviewed the medical knowledge available from ancient and Muslim sources and he also made many original contributions.

397

 The Qanun deals with general medicines,

drugs (seven hundred and sixty), diseases affecting all parts of the body from head to foot, especially pathology and pharmacopoeia. His book was recognized as the most authentic materia medica. Among his original contributions are such advances as recognition of the contagious nature of phthisis and tuberculosis, distribution of diseases by water and soil, and interaction between psychology and health.
398

 He was the first to describe meningitis and

made rich contributions to anatomy, gynecology and child health. Ibn al-Sina was the first scientist to describe the minute and graphic description of different parts of the eye, such as conductive sciera, cornea, choroid, iris, retina, layer lens, aqueous humour, optic nerve and optic chiasma.

399

 Ibn Sina condemned conjectures and

presumptions in anatomy and called upon physicians and surgeons to base their knowledge on a close study of human body. He observed that Aorta at its origin contains three valves which open when the blood rushes into it from the heart during contraction and closes during relaxation of the heart so that the blood may not be poured back into the heart.
400

 Dr William Osler, author of the Evolution of

Modern Science, writes, The Qanun has remained a medical bible for a longer period than any other book. Ibn Sina also wrote Kitab al-Shifa (Book of Healing), known in its Latin translation as Sanatio. It is a philosophical encyclopedia covering a vast area of knowledge from philosophy to science.

401

Human Sciences: Philosophy Theology Sociology

402

 The role of great Muslim Thinkers in the

field of aqidah and tasawwuf to the growth of knowledge and priceless contribution to the process of learning in the history of Islamic culture and civilization. To name but a few, al-Ghazzali, alAshari, al-Maturidiyy, al-Baqillani, alShahrastani, Ibn al-Arabiyy, al-Qusyairi, ect
403

Ibn Rushd Abul Walid Mohammad Ibn Rushd (known as Averroes) He was a physician and philosopher, jurist He wrote a 7-volume medical encyclopedia, Kitab al-Kulliyat fi al-Tibb (Latin name Colliget, a corruption of the word kulliyat= generalities), used at European universities until the eighteenth century.

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 Ibn Rushd's philosophy was an

attempt to synthesize Islamic faith and reason in light of the available Greek heritage. He asserted the "primacy of reason", or a purely philosophical rationalism For him, the primacy of reason is unquestioned but compatible with Islamic faith.
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 His contribution to philosophy was

more significant to Europe than to the Muslim world. His contribution to Europe was in two major areas: i. transfer and commentary on Aristotles philosophy ii. spreading rationalism

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 European philosophers discovered

Aristotle through Ibn Rushd's writings and commentaries on Aristotles works. And he used to be called "the Great Commentator. His commentaries on Aristotle were translated into Latin and Hebrew, and soon became a part of the curriculum at different European universities and institutions of learning.
407

Rationalism:
He was regarded as the herald of rationalism

long before the Renaissance (Gilson) Later, his works became the ruling mode of social thought in the West. And scholars of medieval Europe were provoked and inspired by those writings. A dominant and influential school of philosophical thought emerged under his name (Averroism)

408

 From the end of the twelfth century to the end

of the sixteenth century Averroism remained the dominant school of thought, The results were the Renaissance in the thirteenth century and the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century. His singular influence in stimulating the Western Renaissance is acknowledged "as the landmark in the history of Western civilization" (Gilson, 1938, 30).
409

Ibn Khaldun (1332-1395C.E)

Full name, Abd al-Rahman bin

Muhammad. Born in Tunisia in 732 A.H (1332 C.E), in an influential and learned family. Many of his ancestors had held high posts in the Tunis government.

410

His Studies: His father, however, avoided politics and devoted his time to study jurisprudence, philosophy and poetry and excelled in all these branches of knowledge. Unlike his father, Ibn khaldun was engaged in both learning and politics.

411

 His close friend and associate, Ibn

Khattab, described him as a virtuous man, good natured, shy, opposed to oppression, difficult to handle, wellinformed on intellectual and traditional science, wise of judgment and knowing a lot of things by heart.

412

 Ibn Khaldun made great intellectual

contributions in many areas of learning. He is internationally recognized as the founder and father of sociology, father of philosophy, historian of civilization, and the father of the economic science. He is best known for his famous Muqaddimah (prolegomena) which is a masterpiece in literature on philosophy of history and sociology.
413

 The main theme of Muqaddimah was to

identify psychological, economic, environmental and social facts that contribute to the advancement of human civilization and the currents of history. He analyzed the dynamics of group relationships and showed how group feelings, al-Asabiyyah, produce the ascent of a new civilization and political power.

414

 He identified an almost rhythmic repetition of

the rise and fall in human civilization, and analyzed factors contributing to it. His views attracted the attention of Muslim scholars as well as many Western thinkers. He pioneered the critical study of history. He provided an analytical study of human civilization, its beginning, factors contributing to its development and the causes of decline.

415

 Thus, he found a new science: the science of

social development or sociology, as it is called today. He wrote: I have written on history a book in which I discussed the causes and effects of the development of states and civilizations, and I followed in arranging the material of the book an unfamiliar method, and I followed in writing it a strange and innovative way.

416

 Thus, by selecting his particular method of

analysis, he created two new sciences: Historiography and Sociology simultaneously. He saw reason as a necessity in judging history and social events. He pointed out that injustice, despotism and tyranny are the clear signs of the downfall of the state.

417

 He remarked that historians have committed

errors in their study of historical events, due to three major factors: 1) Their ignorance of the natures of civilization and people; 2) Their bias and prejudice; and 3) Their blind acceptance of reports given by others.

418

 He pointed out that true progress and

development comes through correct understanding of history, and correct understanding of which can only be achieved by observing the following three main points: 1) A historian should not be in any way prejudiced for or against any one or any idea; 2) He needs to conform and scrutinize the reported information; and

419

 3) He should not limit history to the study of

political and military news or to news about rulers and states. For history should include the study of all social, religious and economic conditions.

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Law and Jurisprudence

The five major schools of legal

thought The impact of Muslim jurisprudence on European civil law.

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IMAM MALIK (93 AH - 179 AH/715 - 795 AD)

He spent the whole of his life in Madinah

where much of the Quran was revealed and most of the legal practices of Islam established. He spent his life studying, recording and clarifying the legal parameters and precedents which was passed down to him by the first two generations of Muslims who were the direct inheritors of the perfected form of Islam left by the Prophet (saw).
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 Although he is the author of numerous books,

his most important work is the Kitab alMuwatta, which deals with the subject of Islamic Law based on Ahadith and Sunnah. It is the earliest surviving book of its kind written around 150 A.H.

423

 Ibn Abd al-Barr said that Malik was the first

who compiled a book formed exclusively of sound narrations. Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi said: The Muwatta is the first foundation and the core, while alBukharis book is the second foundation in this respect. Upon these two all the rest have built, such as Muslim and al-Tirmidhi.

424

 Shah Wali Allah said something similar and

added that it is the principal authority of all four Schools of Law, which stand in relation to it like the commentary stands in relation to the main text. Malik composed it in the course of forty years, having started with ten thousand narrations until he reduced them to their present number of under 2,000.

425

 Imam Malik held the hadith of the Prophet in

such reverence that he never narrated anything nor gave a fatwa unless in a state of ritual purity.

426

IMAM ABU HANEEFA (80 AH - 150 A.H. 699 AD - 767 AD)

It is said that Abu Hanifah was extremely

pious, avoided forbidden things, remained silent and absorbed in his thoughts most of the time, and answered a question only if he knew the answer. He was very generous and self-respecting, never asked a favour of anybody, shunned the company of the worldly-minded and held worldly power and position in contempt. He avoided slander and only talked well of people. Despite the fact that Abu Hanifas school of thought is the last to emerge, it is the most widely followed. 427

 He was a man of profound learning and

was as generous with his knowledge as with his money. Despite his wealth and high position in society, the Imam was extremely gentle and polite. He was a man of few words and never took part in idle talk. In his classroom he would sit quietly, letting his pupils freely debate among themselves, and would speak only when the discussion had become long and drawn-out without any conclusion being reached. He would then give his decision, which would satisfy all present.

428

 He left behind him three works namely (1)

Fiqh-i-Akbar, (2) Al Alim Wal Mutaam and (3) Musnad.

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IMAM SHAFII (150 AH - 204 A.H/767 - 820 AD)

Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Idris al-Shafii

was a descendant from the Quraysh tribe, and thus, he is the only Imam who is related to the Prophet (saw). The most important of books is the Kitab alUmm which contains his rulings of on almost all subjects of Islamic Law.

430

 He is known as 'Nasir al Sunnah (one who

saved the sunnah). He was honoured as al-Imam al Mujaddid in that he is the Mujaddid of the 2nd century. He was a student of Imam Malik with whom he spent eight months. Imam Malik made this comment: No scholar more brilliant than Muhammad ibn Idris alShafii ever came to me as a pupil.

431

 He is said to have divided innovation (al-

bidah) into good and bad on the basis of Umars words about the tarawih or congregational supererogatory night prayers in the month of Ramadan: What a fine innovation this is!

432

 Among his sayings is: The study of hadith is

better than supererogatory prayer, and the pursuit of knowledge is better than supererogatory prayer.

433

 Being a prominent figure, his lectures

attracted a huge gathering of at least 5,000 students among whom nearly 500 took down notes daily. Imam Bukhari, Imam Muslim, and Imam Tirmizi were also amongst his noteworthy students.

434

IMAM AHMAD IBN HANBAL (164 AH - 241/780 AD. 855 AD)

Chronologically, he was the last of the four

imams. He was a very pious scholar who devoted all his life in the Science of Ahadith and Fiqh. It is said that he learnt almost a million Ahadith by heart.

435

 Harmala said: I heard al-Shafi`i say: I left

Baghdad and did not leave behind me anyone more virtuous (afdhal), more learned, more knowledgeable than Ahmad ibn Hanbal.

436

 He was probably the most learned in the

sciences of hadith of the four great Imams of Sacred Law, and his students included many of the foremost scholars of hadith. Abu Dawud said of him: Ahmads gatherings were gatherings of the afterlife: nothing of this world was mentioned. Never once did I hear him mention this-worldly things. ... He never once missed praying in the night, and used to recite the entire [Quran] daily.
437

Challenges Confronting Muslims Globally

Challenges of Modern Science and Technology

and the Muslim Responses Challenges of reinvention of Islamic civilization

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The challenge of modern science and technology

Pure sciences and technology in

themselves can be neutral But since they are the outcome of human endeavor, and since human endeavor cannot be separated from human values, science and technology will be always value-laden.
439

Positive Aspects of Western Civilization

Contributed modern technology that

enable people to achieve great scientific development at all domains such as in communication and transportation Introduced good management in perfecting ones work
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 Respects human dignity and

concerned with freedom and human rights Exchange of power by democratic means Provides with high quality products Introduced computers that eased complicated tasks
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Negative Aspects of contemporary Western Civilization Breaking up all moral values of Divine guidance Unimportance of family structure whereby free sexual relations, breaking of noble human feelings by drying its sources and drying up the noble emotions between husband, wife and children
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 Creation and use of weapons of

mass destruction Pollution of clean water, air and contamination of land by toxic substances Neglecting principle aims of human life in this world

443

 Modern science and technology is

the product of the West and as a result is Western oriented/ carries their thoughts and values. What needs to be done? To develop an Islamic methodology of scientific research
444

 To islamize the existing science and

put them in an Islamic context. To produce Muslim minds who will be able to produce sciences and technology which may serve Islamic values and Muslim interests.

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 Brain drain in the Muslim world

- Political instability - Lack of incentives and facilities - Bad living conditions Sponsorship/Government sponsorship: - lack of funds, - unconvinced of the merit of scientific research Joint ventures (OIC, Arab league, regional groups etc.(
446

Islam Hadari:
Its Role in Reviving Islamic Civilization

447

 Historical Background: Islam Hadari was publicized nation-wide

for the first time in the 2004 Manifesto of the National Front for the tenth General Election held in March 2004. Dato Seri Abdullah Badawi, as the fifth Prime Minister of Malaysia, made Islam Hadari a new policy of his government

448

 Literal meaning: the term Hadari

hadhari means civilizational; thus Islam Hadari means civilizational Islam. In Arabic, it is termed as alIslam Hadari Definition: A comprehensive approach for the development of mankind, society and country based on the perspective of Islamic civilization.
449

 Islam Hadari is an approach that

emphasizes development, consistent with the tenets of Islam and focused on enhancing the quality of life. It aims to achieve this via the mastery of knowledge and the development of the individual and the nation;

450

 Islam Hadari is not a new religion.

It is not a new teaching nor is it a new mazhab (denomination). Islam Hadari is an effort to bring the Ummah back to basics, back to the Fundamentals, as prescribed in the Quran and the Hadith that form the foundation of Islamic civilization.

451

Vision: To make Malaysia a model Islamic country, that is, an advanced nation based on its own indigenous matrix. Mission: To implement the development agenda of the country and human based on an Islamic approach which is universal, advanced, civilized, tolerant and balanced.
452

Principles of Islam Hadari 1. Faith in and piety towards Allah 2. A just and trustworthy government 3. Free and independent People 4. Mastery of knowledge 5. Balanced and comprehensive economic development
453

6. A good quality of life 7. Protection of the rights of minority groups and women 8. Cultural and moral integrity 9. Safeguarding of the environment 10. Strong defence capacities

454

Development & Implementation of Islam Hadari Obstacles:

Poverty and illiteracy Both are considered as the biggest threat to Muslim societies today. Both poverty and illiteracy may lead to underdevelopment of the country
455

Secular Vs Religious knowledge It is not a secular approach as claimed by some people It is an approach toward regeneration and renewal of society and civilization of the 21st century in accordance with the noble values and injunctions of Islam.
456

Radicalism and Extremism 9/11 incident From there onwards Muslims have been labeled as terrorists. Some non- Muslims argue that such guidelines will affect them adversely.

457

Inconsistencies and confusions Lack of advertising made by the higher authority. Mindset of people. Solutions: seminars/forums to be organized.

458

Development balanced development - cultural and religious diversity will be protected based on a value and moral system internalization of high moral values - ensure prosperity, harmony and peace in multiracial society cultural integration must be consistent with the noble values of Islam

459

Prospects
Knowledge acquiring knowledge is compulsory and an act of ibadah Islam Hadari encourages learning from others Prophet Muhammad said Go forth and seek knowledge even if you have to travel to China

460

Wealth wealth must be acquired in halal way society must be bold and independent in acquiring wealth Surah al-Qasas (77) Life in hereafter depends on the ability of individual to achieve good life in all aspects spiritual, physical & material

461

Health Sick and physically weak - unable to carry out religious duties and responsibilities good health society with free spirit will produce positively Prophet Muhammad s.a.w has said The mumins who are strong are better and loved by Allah than those who are weak

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STRATEGIES

To expend Islam Hadari into the building of civilization Islamic countries should enhance and develop their institutions of knowledge at all levels. People should be more openminded and forward looking.
463

 To work towards

reducing/eliminating poverty To increase economic resources and financial assets. To improve the living standards of people To make a continuous effort towards the physical and spiritual development of the human beings.
464

 To hold religious and civilizational

dialogues To expand Islam Hadari that reflects intellectuality, humanity, tolerance and critical thinking. To persuade our non-Muslim colleagues not to be prejudiced against Muslims
465

 To protect the political institution and keep the

country in peace To help preparing Muslims in facing global challenges To have long term plans & programs for instilling responsibility towards the defense and dignity of the nation, country and individual

466

 To remove Islamophobia from

non-Muslims To urge International community to stop actions that lead to the perpetuation of injustices against Muslim countries and the Muslim Ummah

467

 Government to cooperate with

nations in the region and Islamic nations all over the world Defending the country from internal and external aggression

468