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Interestingly, there is no clear and widely accepted definition of "learning disabilities." Because of the multidisciplinary nature of the field, there is ongoing debate on the issue of definition.
Learning Disabilities
Federal law defines specific learning disabilities as psychological processing disorders that result in deficits in at least one of the academic skills (U.S. Office of Education, 1977). A child with this label does not have mental retardation, behavior disorders or other major disabilities. The child with LD has difficulty with processing skills such as memory, visual perception, auditory perception, or thinking; and as a result has trouble achieving in at least one subject such as reading, math, or writing (Lerner, 2003). Some of the typical characteristics associated with learning disabilities include problems in reading, mathematics, writing, and oral language; deficits in interpreting what is seen or heard; difficulty with study skills, self-control, self-esteem, memory, and attention (Mercer, 1997).
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1. Lewat Perkembangan (Global Development Delay) (bagi kanakkanak berumur < 3 tahun)
2. Down' Syndrome dan Autisma
Little is currently known about the causes of learning disabilities. However, some general observations can be made:
Some causes
Some children develop and mature at a slower rate than others in the same age group. As a result, they may not be able to do the expected school work. This kind of learning disability is called "maturational lag."
Some children with normal vision and hearing may misinterpret everyday sights and sounds because of some unexplained disorder of the nervous system.
Injuries before birth or in early childhood probably account for some later learning problems. Children born prematurely and children who had medical problems soon after birth sometimes have learning disabilities. Learning disabilities tend to run in families, so some learning disabilities may be inherited. Learning disabilities are more common in boys than girls, possibly because boys tend to mature more slowly. Some learning disabilities appear to be linked to the irregular spelling, pronunciation, and structure of the English language. The incidence of learning disabilities is lower in Spanish or Italian speaking countries.
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problems with reading, mathematics, comprehension, writing, spoken language, or reasoning abilities.
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poor performance on group tests difficulty discriminating size, shape, color difficulty with temporal (time) concepts distorted concept of body image reversals in writing and reading general awkwardness poor visual-motor coordination hyperactivity
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Among the symptoms commonly related to learning disabilities are: difficulty copying accurately from a model slowness in completing work poor organizational skills easily confused by instructions difficulty with abstract reasoning and/or problem solving disorganized thinking often obsesses on one topic or idea poor short-term or long-term memory
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When considering these symptoms, it is important to remain mindful of the following: No one will have all these symptoms. Among LD populations, some symptoms are more common than others. All people have at least two or three of these problems to some degree. The number of symptoms seen in a particular child does not give an indication as whether the disability is mild or severe. It is important to consider if the behaviors are chronic and appear in clusters.
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Research indicates that parental reaction to the diagnosis of learning disability is more pronounced than in any other area of exceptionality. the parent of an LD child goes through a series of emotions before truly accepting the child and his problem.
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DENIAL: "There is really nothing wrong!" "That's the way I was as a child--not to worry!" "He'll grow out of it!" BLAME: "You baby him!" "You expect too much of him." "It's not from my side of the family." FEAR: "Maybe they're not telling me the real problem!" "Is it worse than they say?" "Will he ever marry? go to college? graduate?" ENVY: "Why can't he be like his sister or his cousins?" MOURNING: "He could have been such a success, if not for the learning disability!"
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BARGAINING: "Wait 'till next year!" "Maybe the problem will improve if we move! (or he goes to camp, etc.)." ANGER: "The teachers don't know anything." "I hate this neighborhood, this school...this teacher." GUILT: "My mother was right; I should have used cloth diapers when he was a baby." "I shouldn't have worked during his first year." "I am being punished for something and my child is suffering as a result." ISOLATION: "Nobody else knows or cares about my child." "You and I against the world. No one else understands." FLIGHT: "Let's try this new therapy--Donahue says it works!" "We are going to go from clinic to clinic until somebody tells me what I want to hear.!"
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Give them reasonable chores and a regular family work responsibility whenever possible. Give them an allowance as early as possible and then help them plan to spend within it. Provide toys, games, motor activities and opportunities that will stimulate them in their development. Read enjoyable stories to them and with them. Encourage them to ask questions, discuss stories, tell the story, and to reread stories. Further their ability to concentrate by reducing distracting aspects of their environment as much as possible (provide them with a place to work, study and play). Don't get hung up on traditional school grades! It is important that they progress at their own rates and be rewarded for doing so. 22
Take them to libraries and encourage them to select and check out books of interest. Have them share their books with you. Provide stimulating books and reading material around the house. Help them to develop self-esteem and to compete with self rather than with others. Insist that they cooperate socially by playing, helping, and serving others in the family and the community. Serve as a model to them by reading and discussing material of personal interest. Share with them some of the things you are reading and doing. Don't hesitate to consult with teachers or other specialists whenever you feel it to be necessary in order to better understand what might be done to help your child learn.
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Theories
popular theory is that learning disabilities are genetically transmitted. the brains of learning-disabled people might be different from the non-learning disabled. Ignorance-Drugs-Vitamins
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According to Piaget, this child is in the sensorimotor stage and primarily explores the world with senses rather than through mental operations.
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first six weeks of life, these reflexes begin to become voluntary actions
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Symbolic functioning
characterised by the use of mental symbols, words, or pictures, which the child uses to represent something which is not physically present.
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Centration (berpusat)
characterized by a child focusing or attending to only one aspect of a stimulus or situation. For example, in pouring a quantity of liquid from a narrow beaker into a shallow dish, a preschool child might judge the quantity of liquid to have decreased, because it is "lower"that is, the child attends to the height of the water, but not to the compensating increase in the diameter of the container.
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Egocentrism
a version of centration, this denotes a tendency of a child to only think from her or his own point of view. Also, the inability of a child to take the point of view of others. Example, if a child is in trouble, he or she might cover her eyes thinking if I cannot see myself my mom cannot either.
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Seriation
the ability to arrange objects in an order according to size, shape, or any other characteristic. For example, if given different-shaded objects they may make a colour gradient.
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Classification
the ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size or other characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can include another. A child is no longer subject to the illogical limitations of animism (the belief that all objects are animals and therefore have feelings).
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Inability to Conserve
lack perception of conservation of mass, volume, and number after the original form has changed. For example, a child in this phase will believe that a string of beads set up in a "OOOO" pattern will have a larger number of beads than a string which has a "OOOO" pattern, because the latter pattern has less space in between Os; or that a tall, thin 8-ounce cup has more liquid in it than a wide, short 8-ounce cup
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Animism
The child believes that inanimate objects have "lifelike" qualities and are capable of action. Example, a child plays with a doll and treats it like a real person. In a way this is like using their imagination.
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Reversibility (terbalikan)
where the child understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then returned to their original state. For this reason, a child will be able to rapidly determine that if 4+4 equals 8, 84 will equal 4, the original quantity.
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Conservation
understanding that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or appearance of the object or items. For instance, when a child is presented with two equally-sized, full cups they will be able to discern that if water is transferred to a pitcher it will conserve the quantity and be equal to the other filled cup.
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Elimination of Egocentrism
the ability to view things from another's perspective (even if they think incorrectly)
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Pavlov
B.F Skinner
Behaviourism theory
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skinner
Reinforcement (peneguhan)
Punishment (hukuman)
Extinction (penghapusan)
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Behavioral Theory
Break down tasks into small segments Model, demonstrate, and explain each step in a procedure or new task Include as much extra practice and review as needed for mastery to occur Incorporate structure and predictable routine into lessons Use monitoring and feedback as lesson progresses rather than waiting until conclusion
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3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).
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the learners are actively involved the environment is democratic the activities are interactive and student-centered the teacher facilitates a process of learning in which students are encouraged to be responsible and autonomous students work primarily in groups and learning and knowledge are interactive and dynamic.
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great focus and emphasis on social and communication skills, as well as collaboration and exchange of ideas
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