A Topical Approach to LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT

Biological Beginnings

Biological Beginnings

The Evolutionary Perspective Genetic Foundations Heredity, Environment, and Individual Differences Prenatal Development Birth

The Evolutionary Perspective

The Evolutionary Perspective

Natural Selection and Adaptive Behavior
Evolutionary psychology emphasizes importance of adaptation, reproduction, and survival of the fittest in shaping behavior

The Evolutionary Perspective

Evolutionary Developmental Psychology

Extended juvenile period Aspects of childhood as preparations for adulthood Some characteristics of childhood adaptive Evolved psychological mechanisms

The Evolutionary Perspective

Evolution and Life-Span Development

The Evolutionary Perspective

Evaluating Evolutionary Psychology

Remains just one theoretical approach Evolution does not dictate behavior Biology allows broad range of cultural possibilities

Genetic Foundations

DNA: The Collaborative Gene

DNAcomplex molecule that contains genetic information Genesunits of hereditary information composed of DNA Chromosomesthreadlike structures that contain sequences of genes

Genetic Foundations

Cells, Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA

Genetic Foundations

Mitosis, Meiosis, and Fertilization

Mitosis
Meiosis Reproduction Zygote
Cellular reproduction in which cells nucleus duplicates itself with two new cells Specialized form of cell division that occurs to form eggs and sperm (gametes) Process that, in humans, begins when a female gamete (ovum) is fertilized by a male gamete (sperm) Single cell formed through fertilization

Genetic Foundations

Genotypes and Phenotypes

Genotype Persons genetic heritage; actual genetic material Phenotype Way an individuals genotype is expressed in observed and measurable characteristics

Genetic Foundations

Genetic Principles
Dominant-Recessive Genes Principle Sex-Linked Genes Genetic Imprinting Polygenetic Inheritance

Genetic Foundations

How Brown-Eyed Parents Can Have a Blue-Eyed Child

Genetic Foundations

Responsiveness of Genotypes to Environmental Influences

Genetic Foundations

Reaction Range
Range of possible phenotypes for each genotype, suggesting importance of environments restrictiveness or richness
Canalizationprocess by which characteristics take a narrow path or developmental course

Genetic Foundations

Chromosome and GeneLinked Abnormalities

Down Syndromechromosomally transmitted form of mental retardation
Caused by extra (47th) chromosome

Sex-linked Chromosome Abnormalities

Caused by problems with sex chromosomes

Genetic Foundations

Sex-Linked Chromosome Abnormalities

Klinefelter Syndrome
Fragile X syndrome Turner syndrome XYY syndrome
Males have an extra X chromosome

Abnormality in the X chromosome

Females missing an X chromosome

Males have an extra Y chromosome

Genetic Foundations

Gene-Linked Abnormalities
Phenylketonuria (PKU)individual cannot properly metabolize an amino acid; if left untreated, results in mental retardation and hyperactivity. Sickle-cell anemiaaffects the red blood cells; occurs most often in people of African descent.

Heredity, Environment, and Individual Differences

Behavior Genetics
Behavior geneticsseeks to discover influence of heredity and environment on individuals
Twin studybehavioral similarity of identical twins compared with fraternal twins Adoption studywhether adopted children are more like their adoptive parents or their biological parents

Genotype-Environment Correlations
Passive

Evocative Active (niche picking)

Natural parents provide genetic heritage and rearing environment Childs genotype elicits certain types of physical and social environments Children seek out environments they find compatible and stimulating

Heredity, Environment, and Individual Differences

Shared and Non-Shared Environmental Experiences

Shared environmental experiencessiblings common environmental experiences Non-shared environmental experienceschilds unique experiences, both within family and outside family, that are not shared by another sibling

Heredity, Environment, and Individual Differences

The Epigenetic View

Emphasizes development is result of an ongoing, bi-directional interchange between heredity and environment

The Heredity-Environment and Epigenetic Views

Heredity, Environment, and Individual Differences

Conclusions about HeredityEnvironment Interaction

Heredity and environment operate together Relative contributions of heredity and environment are not additive Many complex behaviors likely have some genetic loading

Prenatal Development

The Germinal Period

Takes place in the first 2 weeks after conception Includes creation of zygote, continued cell division, and attachment of zygote to uterine wall

Prenatal Development

The Embryonic Period

Occurs 2 to 8 weeks after conception Rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for cells form, and organs appear

Prenatal Development

The Placenta and the Umbilical Cord

Prenatal Development

The Fetal Period

Begins 2 months after conception and lasts for 7 months until birth. Growth and development continue, features and functions develop.

Prenatal Development

Prenatal Diagnostic Tests

Amniocentesis Ultrasound sonography Chorionic villi sampling Maternal blood test (alphafetoprotein-AFP)

Prenatal Development

Teratogens and the Prenatal Environment

Teratogenagent that causes a birth defect Severity and type of damage influenced by:
Dose Genetic susceptibility Time of exposure

Prenatal Development

Prescription and Nonprescription Drugs

Psychoactive Drugs
Alcohol
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) abnormalities that appears in offspring of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy

Nicotine Cocaine Marijuana Heroin

Prenatal Development

Environmental Hazards
Lead Radiation Certain pesticides Petrochemicals Pollutants Toxic wastes

Prenatal Development

Infectious Diseases
Rubella Syphilis Genital herpes AIDS

Prenatal Development

Incompatible Blood Types

Blood group Rh factor

Prenatal Development

Other Parental Factors

Nutrition Maternal Age Emotional States Stress

Birth

Stages of Birth
First stage
Lasts average of 12 to 24 hours; uterine contractions are 15 to 20 minutes apart at the beginning and last up to a minute Baby moves through cervix and birth canal to be born

Second stage Third stage (Afterbirth)

Placenta, umbilical cord, and other membranes are detached and expelled

Birth

The Transition from Fetus to Newborn

Considerable stress for baby
Adrenaline and noradrenalin secreted First breaths may be the hardest ones

Birth

Childbirth Setting and Attendants

In U.S.
99 percent of births take place in hospitals 90 percent are attended by physicians 6 percent attended by midwife

Birth

Medication During Delivery

Analgesia - used to relieve pain Anesthesia - used in late first-stage labor and during expulsion of baby to block sensation in an area of body or to block consciousness Oxytocics - used to stimulate contractions

Natural and Prepared Childbirth

Natural childbirthattempts to reduce mothers pain by decreasing fear through education about childbirth and relaxation techniques Prepared childbirthsimilar to natural childbirth with special breathing technique and detailed anatomy and physiology course

Birth

Cesarean Delivery
Baby removed through incision in mothers abdomen Used for breech or other difficult baby positions Used in nearly 1 in 4 U.S. births Benefits and risks debated

Birth

Low Birth Weight Infants

Low Birth Weightborn after regular period of gestation but weigh less than 5 and a half pounds Pretermborn three weeks or more before the pregnancy has reached full term Small for datebirth weights below normal when length of pregnancy is considered

Birth

Consequences of Low Birth Weight

Brain injuries Lung or breathing problems Liver diseases More likely to have later learning disability, attention deficit disorder

Birth

Apgar Scale
Widely used method to assess the health of newborns at 1 and 5 minutes after birth
Infants heart rate Respiratory effort Muscle tone Body color Reflex irritability

Birth

Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale

Given several days after birth to assess:
Neurological development Reflexes Reactions to people

Birth

Tiffany Fields Research on Massage Therapy

Massage therapy led to 47% greater weight gain for preterm infants. Also demonstrated benefits of massage for:
Labor pain Asthma Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Arthritis Autistic children

Birth

Bonding
Formation of a connection, especially a physical bond, between parents and newborn in period shortly after birth Evidence suggests no critical period for bonding, but many parents enjoy early interactions.