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Branch of MICROBIOLOGY study of bodys responses to infectious pathogens Immune- derived from immunis (latin) meaning exemption from taxes
HISTORY
ORIGIN OF IMMUNOLOGY
430 BC- Thucydides- a great historianobserved during an epidemic of plague that those who recovered from plague would nurse the sick because they wouldnt contract the disease a second time 15th century- chinese and turks- variolation dried crusts of small pox pustules either inhaled or inserted into skin cuts, to develop immunity to small pox
EDWARD JENNER
father of vaccine Improved variolation technique Observed that milkmaids whod contracted cowpox were subsequently immune to small pox Inoculated fluid of cowpox pustule in a small boy and he became immune to small pox in 1978
LOUIS PATEUR
Coined the name VACCINE for attenuated strain of pathogen, derived from latin word vacca meaning cow in honour of JENNERs work in cowpox vaccine 1879-1881 Developed 3 attenuated vaccineschicken cholera, anthrax and rabies 1885- 1st vaccine to HUMAN (rabies)
ROBERT KOCH
Discovered cause and nature of TB, by doing its culture out of body and injecting it to an animal in 1880s Nobel prize in 1905 for cellular immunity and other discoveries in TB
CELLULAR IMMUNITY
ELIE METCHINKOFF 1883 Introduced rose thorn into starfish larva, observed that in few hrs it was surrounded by motile cells starting point of cellular immunology Coined the term phagocytosis Nobel prize in 1908 with PAUL EHRLICH FATHER OF CELLULAR IMMUNOLOGY
HUMORAL IMMUNITY
VON BEHRING- nobel prize in 1901- work on serum therapy against diphteria VON BEHRING and KITASATA demonstrated neutralising antitoxic activity of animal sera immunised with diphteria or tetanus toxin 1st proof of humoral immunity CALMETTE 1894demonstrated neutralising activity of snake venom antiserum
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PFEIFFER PHENOMENON: Cholera vibrios injected into previously immunised guinea pig peritonium - lost mobility, clumped together and become unstainable phagocytosed by leukocytes, also lysed in absence of cells demonstrated by PFEIFFER AND ISAEFF in 1894
ANAPHYLAXIS- coined by CHARLES RICHETS and PORTIER, while studying toxic effects of actinaria tentacles by injecting glycerine extract to dogs,1st doseno response,2nd doselethal. Nobel prize in 1913
PERIOD OF SEROLOGY
KARL LANDSTEINER 1900 Demonstrated several antigenic specificities of same species- ABO blood groups in humans Also Rh specificity in rhesus monkey Nobel prize in 1930 for blood groups
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JULES BORDET Nobel prize in 1919, complement related discoveries Bacteriolysis or RBC lysis require 2 factors: sensitiser: thermostable and specific alexine: thermolabile, it is called as cytase by Metchinkoff and complement by Ehrlich Discovered CFT in 1901 with Octave Gengue
IMMUNOFLUORESCENCE: ALBERT COONS, demonstrated the presence of Ag and Ab inside cells by this new technique
BESREDKA- 1902- antileukocyte antisera possess cytotoxic activity against WBCs FELTON PHENOMENON- FELTON in 1942 immunological tolerance. 1st to obtain purified preparation of Abs.
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SUSUMU TONEGAWA-1987- genetic principle for generation of Ab diversity JOSEPH E. MURRAY, E.DONNALL THOMAS1990- human organ and cell transplantation PETER C.DOHERTY, ROLF M.ZINKERNAGEL1996- role of MHC in Ag recognition of cells SYDNEY BRENNER, H.ROBERT HORNTZ, J.E.SULSTON- 2002- genetic regulation of organ development and cell death
IMMUNITY
DEFINITION
IMMUNITY- resistance exhibited by the host towards injury caused by micro organisms and their products In entirety, concerned with reaction of body against any foreign antigen
CLASSIFICATION
INNATE IMMUNITY
Resistance to infection, by virtue of genetic and constitutional make up Not affected by prior contact with microbes or immunisation
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Individual immunity: differences in innate immunity exhibited by different individuals in a race homozygous twins exhibit similar levels of susceptibility and resistance to infections like TB leprosy but not so in heterozygous
HORMONAL INFLUENCES: some endocrine disorders are with enhanced susceptibility corticosteroids depress hosts resistance by its anti inflammatory and antiphagocytic actions. But beneficial effect on endotoxins(neutralisation) staphylococcal infection common in DM, because of excess carbohydrates in tissues effects of stress to infections also due to release of steroids
NUTRITION: both cell mediated and humoral are reduced in malnutrition Eg. Mantoux test is negative in kwashiorkar Paradoxically, certain infections not clinically apparent in malnutrition. Eg. malarial infection may not induce fever in famine striken area
PHYSIOLOGICAL BARRIERS
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Mucosa of GIT: Mouth has saliva with inhibitroy effects on microbes. acidity of stomach rich and varied intestinal flora of ileum and colon Conjuctiva: flushing action of lacrimal secretions tears contain lysozyme ( thermolabile, lmw susbstance, contain muraminidase) genitourinary: flushing action of urine spermine and zinc in semen. acidity of vagina
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ANTIBACTERIAL SUBSTANCES IN BLOOD AND TISSUES: Complement system possess bactericidal
property and plays important role Betalysin: active against anthrax and related bacilli Leukins and plakins: basic polypeptides Lactic acid in muscle and inflammatory zone Lactoperoxidase in milk Interferons protects from viral infections, produced by cells stimulated by live or killed virus
MICROBIAL ANTAGONISM: Resident skin flora of skin and mucous membranes prevent colonisation by pathogens CELLULAR FACTORS: Phagocytic cells classified into microphages and macrophages. Microphages: PMNs Macrophages: histiocytes, wandering ameboid cells of tissues, RE system and monocytes in blood They reach inflammatiory site by chemotactic substances and ingest the foreign particle like bacteria
ACUTE PHASE REACTANTS: infection or injury cause rise of these plasma proteins
CRP, mannose binding protein, alpha-1 acid glycoprotein, serum amyloid P component
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
Resistance that an individual acquires during life TYPES:
Active passive
TYPES
Resistance developed as a result of antigenic stimulus Durable, effective protection Immunity effective only after a lag period Immunological memory present Booster effect on subsequent dose Negative phase Not applicable in immunodeficient Resistance transmitted passively to recipient in readymade form Transient, less effective Immediate immunity No memory Subsequent dose less effective No negative phase Applicable in immunodeficient
ACTIVE IMMUNITY-NATURAL
results from clinical or inapparent infection. Duration varies with type of pathogen
Chicken pox and measles-lifelong Influenza- antigenic variation Common cold- infection by large no. of viruses syphylis- premunition Chancroid- may recur during active disease!
ACTIVE IMMUNITY-ARTIFICIAL
Resistance induced by vaccines Live vaccines- immunity lasts for several years, booster may be necessary Killed vaccines- less immunogenic.
Effective for short period only. require atleast 2 doses
PASSIVE IMMUNITY
NATURAL: Resistance transferred passively from mother to baby Human colustrum rich in IgA, gives protection upto 3 months
PASSIVE IMMUNITY-ARTIFICIAL
Passively transferred by administering antibodies. Used for prophylaxis and therapy Hyperimmune sera of human or animal origin -demerits of hypersensitivity and immune elimination convalescent sera- of patients recovering from infectious diseases pooled human gammaglobulin- of healthy persons
COMBINED IMMUNISATION:
Whenever passive immunisation needed for immediate protection, ideal to put combined immunisation. Eg. tetanus prone wound, bite rabid animal
ADOPTIVE IMMUNITY:
Injection of immunologically competent lymphocytes An extract of immunocompetent lymphocytes called transfer factor Used in diseases like lepromatous leprosy
MEASUREMENT OF IMMUNITY
Testing resistance of individual to a challenge by the pathogen Convenient indicator- demonstration of specific antibodies Using techniques: agglutination,precipitation, complement fixation,hemagglutination,ELISA. In diphtheria- immunity to well defined Ag(toxin)- assessed by in vivo schick test
LOCAL IMMUNITY
Concept proposed by BESREDKA in 1919. Of importance in treating infections that are either localised or where it is operative in combating infection at the site of primary entry of pathogen IgA- secreted locally, by plasma cells of mucosal surfaces, following intestinal exposure to an Ag mucosal or secretory immune system
HERD IMMUNITY
Overall level of immunity in a community of importance in control of epidemics Eradication of communicable diseases depend on development of herd immunity
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